Results for: "slice"

Enumerator::ArithmeticSequence

Enumerator::ArithmeticSequence is a subclass of Enumerator, that is a representation of sequences of numbers with common difference. Instances of this class can be generated by the Range#step and Numeric#step methods.

The class can be used for slicing Array (see Array#slice) or custom collections.

Logger::LogDevice

Device used for logging messages.

Net::HTTPClientException

No documentation available

Net::HTTPMultipleChoices

Response class for Multiple Choices responses (status code 300).

The Multiple Choices response indicates that the server offers multiple options for the resource from which the client may choose.

References:

Net::HTTPMultipleChoice

Response class for Multiple Choices responses (status code 300).

The Multiple Choices response indicates that the server offers multiple options for the resource from which the client may choose.

References:

Net::HTTPConflict

Response class for Conflict responses (status code 409).

The request could not be processed because of conflict in the current state of the resource.

References:

Net::HTTPServiceUnavailable

Response class for Service Unavailable responses (status code 503).

The server cannot handle the request (because it is overloaded or down for maintenance).

References:

Prism::ImplicitNode

Represents a node that is implicitly being added to the tree but doesn’t correspond directly to a node in the source.

{ foo: }
  ^^^^

{ Foo: }
  ^^^^

foo in { bar: }
         ^^^^

Prism::ImplicitRestNode

Represents using a trailing comma to indicate an implicit rest parameter.

foo { |bar,| }
          ^

foo in [bar,]
           ^

for foo, in bar do end
       ^

foo, = bar
   ^

Prism::SourceLineNode

Represents the use of the ‘__LINE__` keyword.

__LINE__
^^^^^^^^

Gem::BasicSpecification

BasicSpecification is an abstract class which implements some common code used by both Specification and StubSpecification.

Gem::ConflictError

Raised when there are conflicting gem specs loaded

Gem::SpecificGemNotFoundException

No documentation available

Gem::RemoteSourceException

Represents an error communicating via HTTP.

Gem::SourceList

The SourceList represents the sources rubygems has been configured to use. A source may be created from an array of sources:

Gem::SourceList.from %w[https://rubygems.example https://internal.example]

Or by adding them:

sources = Gem::SourceList.new
sources << 'https://rubygems.example'

The most common way to get a SourceList is Gem.sources.

TSort::Cyclic

No documentation available

Encoding::InvalidByteSequenceError

Raised by Encoding and String methods when the string being transcoded contains a byte invalid for the either the source or target encoding.

Numeric

Numeric is the class from which all higher-level numeric classes should inherit.

Numeric allows instantiation of heap-allocated objects. Other core numeric classes such as Integer are implemented as immediates, which means that each Integer is a single immutable object which is always passed by value.

a = 1
1.object_id == a.object_id   #=> true

There can only ever be one instance of the integer 1, for example. Ruby ensures this by preventing instantiation. If duplication is attempted, the same instance is returned.

Integer.new(1)                   #=> NoMethodError: undefined method `new' for Integer:Class
1.dup                            #=> 1
1.object_id == 1.dup.object_id   #=> true

For this reason, Numeric should be used when defining other numeric classes.

Classes which inherit from Numeric must implement coerce, which returns a two-member Array containing an object that has been coerced into an instance of the new class and self (see coerce).

Inheriting classes should also implement arithmetic operator methods (+, -, * and /) and the <=> operator (see Comparable). These methods may rely on coerce to ensure interoperability with instances of other numeric classes.

class Tally < Numeric
  def initialize(string)
    @string = string
  end

  def to_s
    @string
  end

  def to_i
    @string.size
  end

  def coerce(other)
    [self.class.new('|' * other.to_i), self]
  end

  def <=>(other)
    to_i <=> other.to_i
  end

  def +(other)
    self.class.new('|' * (to_i + other.to_i))
  end

  def -(other)
    self.class.new('|' * (to_i - other.to_i))
  end

  def *(other)
    self.class.new('|' * (to_i * other.to_i))
  end

  def /(other)
    self.class.new('|' * (to_i / other.to_i))
  end
end

tally = Tally.new('||')
puts tally * 2            #=> "||||"
puts tally > 1            #=> true

What’s Here

First, what’s elsewhere. Class Numeric:

Here, class Numeric provides methods for:

Querying

Comparing

Converting

Other

Exception

Class Exception and its subclasses are used to indicate that an error or other problem has occurred, and may need to be handled. See Exceptions.

An Exception object carries certain information:

Built-In Exception Class Hierarchy

The hierarchy of built-in subclasses of class Exception:

SignalException

Raised when a signal is received.

begin
  Process.kill('HUP',Process.pid)
  sleep # wait for receiver to handle signal sent by Process.kill
rescue SignalException => e
  puts "received Exception #{e}"
end

produces:

received Exception SIGHUP

BasicSocket

BasicSocket is the super class for all the Socket classes.

BasicObject

BasicObject is the parent class of all classes in Ruby. In particular, BasicObject is the parent class of class Object, which is itself the default parent class of every Ruby class:

class Foo; end
Foo.superclass    # => Object
Object.superclass # => BasicObject

BasicObject is the only class that has no parent:

BasicObject.superclass # => nil

Class BasicObject can be used to create an object hierarchy (e.g., class Delegator) that is independent of Ruby’s object hierarchy. Such objects:

A variety of strategies can be used to provide useful portions of the Standard Library in subclasses of BasicObject:

What’s Here

These are the methods defined for BasicObject:

TracePoint

A class that provides the functionality of Kernel#set_trace_func in a well-structured Object-Oriented API.

Example

Use TracePoint to gather information specifically for exceptions:

trace = TracePoint.new(:raise) do |tp|
  p [tp.lineno, tp.event, tp.raised_exception]
end
#=> #<TracePoint:disabled>

trace.enable  #=> false

0 / 0
#=> [5, :raise, #<ZeroDivisionError: divided by 0>]

Events

If you don’t specify the types of events you want to listen for, TracePoint will include all available events.

Note: Do not depend on the current event set, as this list is subject to change. Instead, it is recommended to specify the types of events you want to use.

To filter what is traced, you can pass any of the following as events:

:line

Execute an expression or statement on a new line.

:class

Start a class or module definition.

:end

Finish a class or module definition.

:call

Call a Ruby method.

:return

Return from a Ruby method.

:c_call

Call a C-language routine.

:c_return

Return from a C-language routine.

:raise

Raise an exception.

:rescue

Rescue an exception.

:b_call

Event hook at block entry.

:b_return

Event hook at block ending.

:a_call

Event hook at all calls (call, b_call, and c_call).

:a_return

Event hook at all returns (return, b_return, and c_return).

:thread_begin

Event hook at thread beginning.

:thread_end

Event hook at thread ending.

:fiber_switch

Event hook at fiber switch.

:script_compiled

New Ruby code compiled (with eval, load, or require).

ObjectSpace

The objspace library extends the ObjectSpace module and adds several methods to get internal statistic information about object/memory management.

You need to require 'objspace' to use this extension module.

Generally, you SHOULD NOT use this library if you do not know about the MRI implementation. Mainly, this library is for (memory) profiler developers and MRI developers who need to know about MRI memory usage.

The ObjectSpace module contains a number of routines that interact with the garbage collection facility and allow you to traverse all living objects with an iterator.

ObjectSpace also provides support for object finalizers, procs that will be called after a specific object was destroyed by garbage collection. See the documentation for ObjectSpace.define_finalizer for important information on how to use this method correctly.

a = "A"
b = "B"

ObjectSpace.define_finalizer(a, proc {|id| puts "Finalizer one on #{id}" })
ObjectSpace.define_finalizer(b, proc {|id| puts "Finalizer two on #{id}" })

a = nil
b = nil

produces:

Finalizer two on 537763470
Finalizer one on 537763480

OpenSSL

OpenSSL provides SSL, TLS and general purpose cryptography. It wraps the OpenSSL library.

Examples

All examples assume you have loaded OpenSSL with:

require 'openssl'

These examples build atop each other. For example the key created in the next is used in throughout these examples.

Keys

Creating a Key

This example creates a 2048 bit RSA keypair and writes it to the current directory.

key = OpenSSL::PKey::RSA.new 2048

File.write 'private_key.pem', key.private_to_pem
File.write 'public_key.pem', key.public_to_pem

Exporting a Key

Keys saved to disk without encryption are not secure as anyone who gets ahold of the key may use it unless it is encrypted. In order to securely export a key you may export it with a password.

cipher = OpenSSL::Cipher.new 'aes-256-cbc'
password = 'my secure password goes here'

key_secure = key.private_to_pem cipher, password

File.write 'private.secure.pem', key_secure

OpenSSL::Cipher.ciphers returns a list of available ciphers.

Loading a Key

A key can also be loaded from a file.

key2 = OpenSSL::PKey.read File.read 'private_key.pem'
key2.public? # => true
key2.private? # => true

or

key3 = OpenSSL::PKey.read File.read 'public_key.pem'
key3.public? # => true
key3.private? # => false

Loading an Encrypted Key

OpenSSL will prompt you for your password when loading an encrypted key. If you will not be able to type in the password you may provide it when loading the key:

key4_pem = File.read 'private.secure.pem'
password = 'my secure password goes here'
key4 = OpenSSL::PKey.read key4_pem, password

RSA Encryption

RSA provides encryption and decryption using the public and private keys. You can use a variety of padding methods depending upon the intended use of encrypted data.

Encryption & Decryption

Asymmetric public/private key encryption is slow and victim to attack in cases where it is used without padding or directly to encrypt larger chunks of data. Typical use cases for RSA encryption involve “wrapping” a symmetric key with the public key of the recipient who would “unwrap” that symmetric key again using their private key. The following illustrates a simplified example of such a key transport scheme. It shouldn’t be used in practice, though, standardized protocols should always be preferred.

wrapped_key = key.public_encrypt key

A symmetric key encrypted with the public key can only be decrypted with the corresponding private key of the recipient.

original_key = key.private_decrypt wrapped_key

By default PKCS#1 padding will be used, but it is also possible to use other forms of padding, see PKey::RSA for further details.

Signatures

Using “private_encrypt” to encrypt some data with the private key is equivalent to applying a digital signature to the data. A verifying party may validate the signature by comparing the result of decrypting the signature with “public_decrypt” to the original data. However, OpenSSL::PKey already has methods “sign” and “verify” that handle digital signatures in a standardized way - “private_encrypt” and “public_decrypt” shouldn’t be used in practice.

To sign a document, a cryptographically secure hash of the document is computed first, which is then signed using the private key.

signature = key.sign 'SHA256', document

To validate the signature, again a hash of the document is computed and the signature is decrypted using the public key. The result is then compared to the hash just computed, if they are equal the signature was valid.

if key.verify 'SHA256', signature, document
  puts 'Valid'
else
  puts 'Invalid'
end

PBKDF2 Password-based Encryption

If supported by the underlying OpenSSL version used, Password-based Encryption should use the features of PKCS5. If not supported or if required by legacy applications, the older, less secure methods specified in RFC 2898 are also supported (see below).

PKCS5 supports PBKDF2 as it was specified in PKCS#5 v2.0. It still uses a password, a salt, and additionally a number of iterations that will slow the key derivation process down. The slower this is, the more work it requires being able to brute-force the resulting key.

Encryption

The strategy is to first instantiate a Cipher for encryption, and then to generate a random IV plus a key derived from the password using PBKDF2. PKCS #5 v2.0 recommends at least 8 bytes for the salt, the number of iterations largely depends on the hardware being used.

cipher = OpenSSL::Cipher.new 'aes-256-cbc'
cipher.encrypt
iv = cipher.random_iv

pwd = 'some hopefully not to easily guessable password'
salt = OpenSSL::Random.random_bytes 16
iter = 20000
key_len = cipher.key_len
digest = OpenSSL::Digest.new('SHA256')

key = OpenSSL::PKCS5.pbkdf2_hmac(pwd, salt, iter, key_len, digest)
cipher.key = key

Now encrypt the data:

encrypted = cipher.update document
encrypted << cipher.final

Decryption

Use the same steps as before to derive the symmetric AES key, this time setting the Cipher up for decryption.

cipher = OpenSSL::Cipher.new 'aes-256-cbc'
cipher.decrypt
cipher.iv = iv # the one generated with #random_iv

pwd = 'some hopefully not to easily guessable password'
salt = ... # the one generated above
iter = 20000
key_len = cipher.key_len
digest = OpenSSL::Digest.new('SHA256')

key = OpenSSL::PKCS5.pbkdf2_hmac(pwd, salt, iter, key_len, digest)
cipher.key = key

Now decrypt the data:

decrypted = cipher.update encrypted
decrypted << cipher.final

X509 Certificates

Creating a Certificate

This example creates a self-signed certificate using an RSA key and a SHA1 signature.

key = OpenSSL::PKey::RSA.new 2048
name = OpenSSL::X509::Name.parse '/CN=nobody/DC=example'

cert = OpenSSL::X509::Certificate.new
cert.version = 2
cert.serial = 0
cert.not_before = Time.now
cert.not_after = Time.now + 3600

cert.public_key = key.public_key
cert.subject = name

Certificate Extensions

You can add extensions to the certificate with OpenSSL::SSL::ExtensionFactory to indicate the purpose of the certificate.

extension_factory = OpenSSL::X509::ExtensionFactory.new nil, cert

cert.add_extension \
  extension_factory.create_extension('basicConstraints', 'CA:FALSE', true)

cert.add_extension \
  extension_factory.create_extension(
    'keyUsage', 'keyEncipherment,dataEncipherment,digitalSignature')

cert.add_extension \
  extension_factory.create_extension('subjectKeyIdentifier', 'hash')

The list of supported extensions (and in some cases their possible values) can be derived from the “objects.h” file in the OpenSSL source code.

Signing a Certificate

To sign a certificate set the issuer and use OpenSSL::X509::Certificate#sign with a digest algorithm. This creates a self-signed cert because we’re using the same name and key to sign the certificate as was used to create the certificate.

cert.issuer = name
cert.sign key, OpenSSL::Digest.new('SHA1')

open 'certificate.pem', 'w' do |io| io.write cert.to_pem end

Loading a Certificate

Like a key, a cert can also be loaded from a file.

cert2 = OpenSSL::X509::Certificate.new File.read 'certificate.pem'

Verifying a Certificate

Certificate#verify will return true when a certificate was signed with the given public key.

raise 'certificate can not be verified' unless cert2.verify key

Certificate Authority

A certificate authority (CA) is a trusted third party that allows you to verify the ownership of unknown certificates. The CA issues key signatures that indicate it trusts the user of that key. A user encountering the key can verify the signature by using the CA’s public key.

CA Key

CA keys are valuable, so we encrypt and save it to disk and make sure it is not readable by other users.

ca_key = OpenSSL::PKey::RSA.new 2048
password = 'my secure password goes here'

cipher = 'aes-256-cbc'

open 'ca_key.pem', 'w', 0400 do |io|
  io.write ca_key.private_to_pem(cipher, password)
end

CA Certificate

A CA certificate is created the same way we created a certificate above, but with different extensions.

ca_name = OpenSSL::X509::Name.parse '/CN=ca/DC=example'

ca_cert = OpenSSL::X509::Certificate.new
ca_cert.serial = 0
ca_cert.version = 2
ca_cert.not_before = Time.now
ca_cert.not_after = Time.now + 86400

ca_cert.public_key = ca_key.public_key
ca_cert.subject = ca_name
ca_cert.issuer = ca_name

extension_factory = OpenSSL::X509::ExtensionFactory.new
extension_factory.subject_certificate = ca_cert
extension_factory.issuer_certificate = ca_cert

ca_cert.add_extension \
  extension_factory.create_extension('subjectKeyIdentifier', 'hash')

This extension indicates the CA’s key may be used as a CA.

ca_cert.add_extension \
  extension_factory.create_extension('basicConstraints', 'CA:TRUE', true)

This extension indicates the CA’s key may be used to verify signatures on both certificates and certificate revocations.

ca_cert.add_extension \
  extension_factory.create_extension(
    'keyUsage', 'cRLSign,keyCertSign', true)

Root CA certificates are self-signed.

ca_cert.sign ca_key, OpenSSL::Digest.new('SHA1')

The CA certificate is saved to disk so it may be distributed to all the users of the keys this CA will sign.

open 'ca_cert.pem', 'w' do |io|
  io.write ca_cert.to_pem
end

Certificate Signing Request

The CA signs keys through a Certificate Signing Request (CSR). The CSR contains the information necessary to identify the key.

csr = OpenSSL::X509::Request.new
csr.version = 0
csr.subject = name
csr.public_key = key.public_key
csr.sign key, OpenSSL::Digest.new('SHA1')

A CSR is saved to disk and sent to the CA for signing.

open 'csr.pem', 'w' do |io|
  io.write csr.to_pem
end

Creating a Certificate from a CSR

Upon receiving a CSR the CA will verify it before signing it. A minimal verification would be to check the CSR’s signature.

csr = OpenSSL::X509::Request.new File.read 'csr.pem'

raise 'CSR can not be verified' unless csr.verify csr.public_key

After verification a certificate is created, marked for various usages, signed with the CA key and returned to the requester.

csr_cert = OpenSSL::X509::Certificate.new
csr_cert.serial = 0
csr_cert.version = 2
csr_cert.not_before = Time.now
csr_cert.not_after = Time.now + 600

csr_cert.subject = csr.subject
csr_cert.public_key = csr.public_key
csr_cert.issuer = ca_cert.subject

extension_factory = OpenSSL::X509::ExtensionFactory.new
extension_factory.subject_certificate = csr_cert
extension_factory.issuer_certificate = ca_cert

csr_cert.add_extension \
  extension_factory.create_extension('basicConstraints', 'CA:FALSE')

csr_cert.add_extension \
  extension_factory.create_extension(
    'keyUsage', 'keyEncipherment,dataEncipherment,digitalSignature')

csr_cert.add_extension \
  extension_factory.create_extension('subjectKeyIdentifier', 'hash')

csr_cert.sign ca_key, OpenSSL::Digest.new('SHA1')

open 'csr_cert.pem', 'w' do |io|
  io.write csr_cert.to_pem
end

SSL and TLS Connections

Using our created key and certificate we can create an SSL or TLS connection. An SSLContext is used to set up an SSL session.

context = OpenSSL::SSL::SSLContext.new

SSL Server

An SSL server requires the certificate and private key to communicate securely with its clients:

context.cert = cert
context.key = key

Then create an SSLServer with a TCP server socket and the context. Use the SSLServer like an ordinary TCP server.

require 'socket'

tcp_server = TCPServer.new 5000
ssl_server = OpenSSL::SSL::SSLServer.new tcp_server, context

loop do
  ssl_connection = ssl_server.accept

  data = ssl_connection.gets

  response = "I got #{data.dump}"
  puts response

  ssl_connection.puts "I got #{data.dump}"
  ssl_connection.close
end

SSL client

An SSL client is created with a TCP socket and the context. SSLSocket#connect must be called to initiate the SSL handshake and start encryption. A key and certificate are not required for the client socket.

Note that SSLSocket#close doesn’t close the underlying socket by default. Set SSLSocket#sync_close to true if you want.

require 'socket'

tcp_socket = TCPSocket.new 'localhost', 5000
ssl_client = OpenSSL::SSL::SSLSocket.new tcp_socket, context
ssl_client.sync_close = true
ssl_client.connect

ssl_client.puts "hello server!"
puts ssl_client.gets

ssl_client.close # shutdown the TLS connection and close tcp_socket

Peer Verification

An unverified SSL connection does not provide much security. For enhanced security the client or server can verify the certificate of its peer.

The client can be modified to verify the server’s certificate against the certificate authority’s certificate:

context.ca_file = 'ca_cert.pem'
context.verify_mode = OpenSSL::SSL::VERIFY_PEER

require 'socket'

tcp_socket = TCPSocket.new 'localhost', 5000
ssl_client = OpenSSL::SSL::SSLSocket.new tcp_socket, context
ssl_client.connect

ssl_client.puts "hello server!"
puts ssl_client.gets

If the server certificate is invalid or context.ca_file is not set when verifying peers an OpenSSL::SSL::SSLError will be raised.

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