Results for: "to_proc"

Returns the configuration instance variables as a hash, that can be passed to the configure method.

A class which allows both internal and external iteration.

An Enumerator can be created by the following methods.

• Object#to_enum

• Object#enum_for

• Enumerator.new

Most methods have two forms: a block form where the contents are evaluated for each item in the enumeration, and a non-block form which returns a new Enumerator wrapping the iteration.

enumerator = %w(one two three).each
puts enumerator.class # => Enumerator

enumerator.each_with_object("foo") do |item, obj|
  puts "#{obj}: #{item}"
end

# foo: one
# foo: two
# foo: three

enum_with_obj = enumerator.each_with_object("foo")
puts enum_with_obj.class # => Enumerator

enum_with_obj.each do |item, obj|
  puts "#{obj}: #{item}"
end

# foo: one
# foo: two
# foo: three

This allows you to chain Enumerators together. For example, you can map a list’s elements to strings containing the index and the element as a string via:

puts %w[foo bar baz].map.with_index { |w, i| "#{i}:#{w}" }
# => ["0:foo", "1:bar", "2:baz"]

An Enumerator can also be used as an external iterator. For example, Enumerator#next returns the next value of the iterator or raises StopIteration if the Enumerator is at the end.

e = [1,2,3].each   # returns an enumerator object.
puts e.next   # => 1
puts e.next   # => 2
puts e.next   # => 3
puts e.next   # raises StopIteration

Note that enumeration sequence by next, next_values, peek and peek_values do not affect other non-external enumeration methods, unless the underlying iteration method itself has side-effect, e.g. IO#each_line.

Moreover, implementation typically uses fibers so performance could be slower and exception stacktraces different than expected.

You can use this to implement an internal iterator as follows:

def ext_each(e)
  while true
    begin
      vs = e.next_values
    rescue StopIteration
      return $!.result
    end
    y = yield(*vs)
    e.feed y
  end
end

o = Object.new

def o.each
  puts yield
  puts yield(1)
  puts yield(1, 2)
  3
end

# use o.each as an internal iterator directly.
puts o.each {|*x| puts x; [:b, *x] }
# => [], [:b], [1], [:b, 1], [1, 2], [:b, 1, 2], 3

# convert o.each to an external iterator for
# implementing an internal iterator.
puts ext_each(o.to_enum) {|*x| puts x; [:b, *x] }
# => [], [:b], [1], [:b, 1], [1, 2], [:b, 1, 2], 3

Raised to stop the iteration, in particular by Enumerator#next. It is rescued by Kernel#loop.

loop do
  puts "Hello"
  raise StopIteration
  puts "World"
end
puts "Done!"

produces:

Hello
Done!

Use the Monitor class when you want to have a lock object for blocks with mutual exclusion.

require 'monitor'

lock = Monitor.new
lock.synchronize do
  # exclusive access
end

This library provides three different ways to delegate method calls to an object. The easiest to use is SimpleDelegator. Pass an object to the constructor and all methods supported by the object will be delegated. This object can be changed later.

Going a step further, the top level DelegateClass method allows you to easily setup delegation through class inheritance. This is considerably more flexible and thus probably the most common use for this library.

Finally, if you need full control over the delegation scheme, you can inherit from the abstract class Delegator and customize as needed. (If you find yourself needing this control, have a look at Forwardable which is also in the standard library. It may suit your needs better.)

SimpleDelegator’s implementation serves as a nice example of the use of Delegator:

require 'delegate'

class SimpleDelegator < Delegator
  def __getobj__
    @delegate_sd_obj # return object we are delegating to, required
  end

  def __setobj__(obj)
    @delegate_sd_obj = obj # change delegation object,
                           # a feature we're providing
  end
end

Notes

Be advised, RDoc will not detect delegated methods.

A concrete implementation of Delegator, this class provides the means to delegate all supported method calls to the object passed into the constructor and even to change the object being delegated to at a later time with __setobj__.

class User
  def born_on
    Date.new(1989, 9, 10)
  end
end

require 'delegate'

class UserDecorator < SimpleDelegator
  def birth_year
    born_on.year
  end
end

decorated_user = UserDecorator.new(User.new)
decorated_user.birth_year  #=> 1989
decorated_user.__getobj__  #=> #<User: ...>

A SimpleDelegator instance can take advantage of the fact that SimpleDelegator is a subclass of Delegator to call super to have methods called on the object being delegated to.

class SuperArray < SimpleDelegator
  def [](*args)
    super + 1
  end
end

SuperArray.new([1])[0]  #=> 2

Here’s a simple example that takes advantage of the fact that SimpleDelegator’s delegation object can be changed at any time.

class Stats
  def initialize
    @source = SimpleDelegator.new([])
  end

  def stats(records)
    @source.__setobj__(records)

    "Elements:  #{@source.size}\n" +
    " Non-Nil:  #{@source.compact.size}\n" +
    "  Unique:  #{@source.uniq.size}\n"
  end
end

s = Stats.new
puts s.stats(%w{James Edward Gray II})
puts
puts s.stats([1, 2, 3, nil, 4, 5, 1, 2])

Prints:

Elements:  4
 Non-Nil:  4
  Unique:  4

Elements:  8
 Non-Nil:  7
  Unique:  6

The GetoptLong class allows you to parse command line options similarly to the GNU getopt_long() C library call. Note, however, that GetoptLong is a pure Ruby implementation.

GetoptLong allows for POSIX-style options like --file as well as single letter options like -f

The empty option -- (two minus symbols) is used to end option processing. This can be particularly important if options have optional arguments.

Here is a simple example of usage:

require 'getoptlong'

opts = GetoptLong.new(
  [ '--help', '-h', GetoptLong::NO_ARGUMENT ],
  [ '--repeat', '-n', GetoptLong::REQUIRED_ARGUMENT ],
  [ '--name', GetoptLong::OPTIONAL_ARGUMENT ]
)

dir = nil
name = nil
repetitions = 1
opts.each do |opt, arg|
  case opt
    when '--help'
      puts <<-EOF
hello [OPTION] ... DIR

-h, --help:
   show help

--repeat x, -n x:
   repeat x times

--name [name]:
   greet user by name, if name not supplied default is John

DIR: The directory in which to issue the greeting.
      EOF
    when '--repeat'
      repetitions = arg.to_i
    when '--name'
      if arg == ''
        name = 'John'
      else
        name = arg
      end
  end
end

if ARGV.length != 1
  puts "Missing dir argument (try --help)"
  exit 0
end

dir = ARGV.shift

Dir.chdir(dir)
for i in (1..repetitions)
  print "Hello"
  if name
    print ", #{name}"
  end
  puts
end

Example command line:

hello -n 6 --name -- /tmp

PStore implements a file based persistence mechanism based on a Hash. User code can store hierarchies of Ruby objects (values) into the data store file by name (keys). An object hierarchy may be just a single object. User code may later read values back from the data store or even update data, as needed.

The transactional behavior ensures that any changes succeed or fail together. This can be used to ensure that the data store is not left in a transitory state, where some values were updated but others were not.

Behind the scenes, Ruby objects are stored to the data store file with Marshal. That carries the usual limitations. Proc objects cannot be marshalled, for example.

Usage example:

require "pstore"

# a mock wiki object...
class WikiPage
  def initialize( page_name, author, contents )
    @page_name = page_name
    @revisions = Array.new

    add_revision(author, contents)
  end

  attr_reader :page_name

  def add_revision( author, contents )
    @revisions << { :created  => Time.now,
                    :author   => author,
                    :contents => contents }
  end

  def wiki_page_references
    [@page_name] + @revisions.last[:contents].scan(/\b(?:[A-Z]+[a-z]+){2,}/)
  end

  # ...
end

# create a new page...
home_page = WikiPage.new( "HomePage", "James Edward Gray II",
                          "A page about the JoysOfDocumentation..." )

# then we want to update page data and the index together, or not at all...
wiki = PStore.new("wiki_pages.pstore")
wiki.transaction do  # begin transaction; do all of this or none of it
  # store page...
  wiki[home_page.page_name] = home_page
  # ensure that an index has been created...
  wiki[:wiki_index] ||= Array.new
  # update wiki index...
  wiki[:wiki_index].push(*home_page.wiki_page_references)
end                   # commit changes to wiki data store file

### Some time later... ###

# read wiki data...
wiki.transaction(true) do  # begin read-only transaction, no changes allowed
  wiki.roots.each do |data_root_name|
    p data_root_name
    p wiki[data_root_name]
  end
end

Transaction modes

By default, file integrity is only ensured as long as the operating system (and the underlying hardware) doesn’t raise any unexpected I/O errors. If an I/O error occurs while PStore is writing to its file, then the file will become corrupted.

You can prevent this by setting pstore.ultra_safe = true. However, this results in a minor performance loss, and only works on platforms that support atomic file renames. Please consult the documentation for ultra_safe for details.

Needless to say, if you’re storing valuable data with PStore, then you should backup the PStore files from time to time.

Ractor is a Actor-model abstraction for Ruby that provides thread-safe parallel execution.

Ractor.new can make a new Ractor, and it will run in parallel.

# The simplest ractor
r = Ractor.new {puts "I am in Ractor!"}
r.take # wait for it to finish
# here "I am in Ractor!" would be printed

Ractors do not share usual objects, so the same kinds of thread-safety concerns such as data-race, race-conditions are not available on multi-ractor programming.

To achieve this, ractors severely limit object sharing between different ractors. For example, unlike threads, ractors can’t access each other’s objects, nor any objects through variables of the outer scope.

a = 1
r = Ractor.new {puts "I am in Ractor! a=#{a}"}
# fails immediately with
# ArgumentError (can not isolate a Proc because it accesses outer variables (a).)

On CRuby (the default implementation), Global Virtual Machine Lock (GVL) is held per ractor, so ractors are performed in parallel without locking each other.

Instead of accessing the shared state, the objects should be passed to and from ractors via sending and receiving objects as messages.

a = 1
r = Ractor.new do
  a_in_ractor = receive # receive blocks till somebody will pass message
  puts "I am in Ractor! a=#{a_in_ractor}"
end
r.send(a)  # pass it
r.take
# here "I am in Ractor! a=1" would be printed

There are two pairs of methods for sending/receiving messages:

• Ractor#send and Ractor.receive for when the sender knows the receiver (push);

• Ractor.yield and Ractor#take for when the receiver knows the sender (pull);

In addition to that, an argument to Ractor.new would be passed to block and available there as if received by Ractor.receive, and the last block value would be sent outside of the ractor as if sent by Ractor.yield.

A little demonstration on a classic ping-pong:

server = Ractor.new do
  puts "Server starts: #{self.inspect}"
  puts "Server sends: ping"
  Ractor.yield 'ping'                       # The server doesn't know the receiver and sends to whoever interested
  received = Ractor.receive                 # The server doesn't know the sender and receives from whoever sent
  puts "Server received: #{received}"
end

client = Ractor.new(server) do |srv|        # The server is sent inside client, and available as srv
  puts "Client starts: #{self.inspect}"
  received = srv.take                       # The Client takes a message specifically from the server
  puts "Client received from " \
       "#{srv.inspect}: #{received}"
  puts "Client sends to " \
       "#{srv.inspect}: pong"
  srv.send 'pong'                           # The client sends a message specifically to the server
end

[client, server].each(&:take)               # Wait till they both finish

This will output:

Server starts: #<Ractor:#2 test.rb:1 running>
Server sends: ping
Client starts: #<Ractor:#3 test.rb:8 running>
Client received from #<Ractor:#2 rac.rb:1 blocking>: ping
Client sends to #<Ractor:#2 rac.rb:1 blocking>: pong
Server received: pong

It is said that Ractor receives messages via the incoming port, and sends them to the outgoing port. Either one can be disabled with Ractor#close_incoming and Ractor#close_outgoing respectively. If a ractor terminated, its ports will be closed automatically.

Shareable and unshareable objects

When the object is sent to and from the ractor, it is important to understand whether the object is shareable or unshareable. Most of objects are unshareable objects.

Shareable objects are basically those which can be used by several threads without compromising thread-safety; e.g. immutable ones. Ractor.shareable? allows to check this, and Ractor.make_shareable tries to make object shareable if it is not.

Ractor.shareable?(1)            #=> true -- numbers and other immutable basic values are
Ractor.shareable?('foo')        #=> false, unless the string is frozen due to # freeze_string_literals: true
Ractor.shareable?('foo'.freeze) #=> true

ary = ['hello', 'world']
ary.frozen?                 #=> false
ary[0].frozen?              #=> false
Ractor.make_shareable(ary)
ary.frozen?                 #=> true
ary[0].frozen?              #=> true
ary[1].frozen?              #=> true

When a shareable object is sent (via send or Ractor.yield), no additional processing happens, and it just becomes usable by both ractors. When an unshareable object is sent, it can be either copied or moved. The first is the default, and it makes the object’s full copy by deep cloning of non-shareable parts of its structure.

data = ['foo', 'bar'.freeze]
r = Ractor.new do
  data2 = Ractor.receive
  puts "In ractor: #{data2.object_id}, #{data2[0].object_id}, #{data2[1].object_id}"
end
r.send(data)
r.take
puts "Outside  : #{data.object_id}, #{data[0].object_id}, #{data[1].object_id}"

This will output:

In ractor: 340, 360, 320
Outside  : 380, 400, 320

(Note that object id of both array and non-frozen string inside array have changed inside the ractor, showing it is different objects. But the second array’s element, which is a shareable frozen string, has the same object_id.)

Deep cloning of the objects may be slow, and sometimes impossible. Alternatively, move: true may be used on sending. This will move the object to the receiving ractor, making it inaccessible for a sending ractor.

data = ['foo', 'bar']
r = Ractor.new do
  data_in_ractor = Ractor.receive
  puts "In ractor: #{data_in_ractor.object_id}, #{data_in_ractor[0].object_id}"
end
r.send(data, move: true)
r.take
puts "Outside: moved? #{Ractor::MovedObject === data}"
puts "Outside: #{data.inspect}"

This will output:

In ractor: 100, 120
Outside: moved? true
test.rb:9:in `method_missing': can not send any methods to a moved object (Ractor::MovedError)

Notice that even inspect (and more basic methods like __id__) is inaccessible on a moved object.

Besides frozen objects, there are shareable objects. Class and Module objects are shareable so the Class/Module definitions are shared between ractors. Ractor objects are also shareable objects. All operations for the shareable mutable objects are thread-safe, so the thread-safety property will be kept. We can not define mutable shareable objects in Ruby, but C extensions can introduce them.

It is prohibited to access instance variables of mutable shareable objects (especially Modules and classes) from ractors other than main:

class C
  class << self
    attr_accessor :tricky
  end
end

C.tricky = 'test'

r = Ractor.new(C) do |cls|
  puts "I see #{cls}"
  puts "I can't see #{cls.tricky}"
end
r.take
# I see C
# can not access instance variables of classes/modules from non-main Ractors (RuntimeError)

Ractors can access constants if they are shareable. The main Ractor is the only one that can access non-shareable constants.

GOOD = 'good'.freeze
BAD = 'bad'

r = Ractor.new do
  puts "GOOD=#{GOOD}"
  puts "BAD=#{BAD}"
end
r.take
# GOOD=good
# can not access non-shareable objects in constant Object::BAD by non-main Ractor. (NameError)

# Consider the same C class from above

r = Ractor.new do
  puts "I see #{C}"
  puts "I can't see #{C.tricky}"
end
r.take
# I see C
# can not access instance variables of classes/modules from non-main Ractors (RuntimeError)

See also the description of # shareable_constant_value pragma in Comments syntax explanation.

Ractors vs threads

Each ractor creates its own thread. New threads can be created from inside ractor (and, on CRuby, sharing GVL with other threads of this ractor).

r = Ractor.new do
  a = 1
  Thread.new {puts "Thread in ractor: a=#{a}"}.join
end
r.take
# Here "Thread in ractor: a=1" will be printed

Note on code examples

In examples below, sometimes we use the following method to wait till ractors that are not currently blocked will finish (or process till next blocking) method.

def wait
  sleep(0.1)
end

It is **only for demonstration purposes** and shouldn’t be used in a real code. Most of the times, just take is used to wait till ractor will finish.

Reference

See Ractor design doc for more details.

newton.rb

Solves the nonlinear algebraic equation system f = 0 by Newton’s method. This program is not dependent on BigDecimal.

To call:

  n = nlsolve(f,x)
where n is the number of iterations required,
      x is the initial value vector
      f is an Object which is used to compute the values of the equations to be solved.

It must provide the following methods:

f.values(x)

returns the values of all functions at x

f.zero

returns 0.0

f.one

returns 1.0

f.two

returns 2.0

f.ten

returns 10.0

f.eps

returns the convergence criterion (epsilon value) used to determine whether two values are considered equal. If |a-b| < epsilon, the two values are considered equal.

On exit, x is the solution vector.

The Singleton module implements the Singleton pattern.

Usage

To use Singleton, include the module in your class.

class Klass
   include Singleton
   # ...
end

This ensures that only one instance of Klass can be created.

a,b = Klass.instance, Klass.instance

a == b
# => true

Klass.new
# => NoMethodError - new is private ...

The instance is created at upon the first call of Klass.instance().

class OtherKlass
  include Singleton
  # ...
end

ObjectSpace.each_object(OtherKlass){}
# => 0

OtherKlass.instance
ObjectSpace.each_object(OtherKlass){}
# => 1

This behavior is preserved under inheritance and cloning.

Implementation

This above is achieved by:

• Making Klass.new and Klass.allocate private.

• Overriding Klass.inherited(sub_klass) and Klass.clone() to ensure that the Singleton properties are kept when inherited and cloned.

• Providing the Klass.instance() method that returns the same object each time it is called.

• Overriding Klass._load(str) to call Klass.instance().

• Overriding Klass#clone and Klass#dup to raise TypeErrors to prevent cloning or duping.

Singleton and Marshal

By default Singleton’s _dump(depth) returns the empty string. Marshalling by default will strip state information, e.g. instance variables from the instance. Classes using Singleton can provide custom _load(str) and _dump(depth) methods to retain some of the previous state of the instance.

require 'singleton'

class Example
  include Singleton
  attr_accessor :keep, :strip
  def _dump(depth)
    # this strips the @strip information from the instance
    Marshal.dump(@keep, depth)
  end

  def self._load(str)
    instance.keep = Marshal.load(str)
    instance
  end
end

a = Example.instance
a.keep = "keep this"
a.strip = "get rid of this"

stored_state = Marshal.dump(a)

a.keep = nil
a.strip = nil
b = Marshal.load(stored_state)
p a == b  #  => true
p a.keep  #  => "keep this"
p a.strip #  => nil

OCSP error class.

See Net::HTTPGenericRequest for attributes and methods.

See Net::HTTPGenericRequest for attributes and methods.

An absolutely silent progress reporter.

A basic dotted progress reporter.

A progress reporter that prints out messages about the current progress.

Returns the configuration instance variables as a hash, that can be passed to the configure method.

Returns the octet string representation of the EC point as an instance of OpenSSL::BN.

If conversion_form is not given, the point_conversion_form attribute set to the group is used.

See to_octet_string for more information.

See the OpenSSL documentation for PEM_write_bio_ECPKParameters()