Results for: "partition"

ARGF

ARGF and ARGV

The ARGF object works with the array at global variable ARGV to make $stdin and file streams available in the Ruby program:

Reading

ARGF may read from source streams, which at any particular time are determined by the content of ARGV.

Simplest Case

When the very first ARGF read occurs with an empty ARGV ([]), the source is $stdin:

About the Examples

Many examples here assume the existence of files foo.txt and bar.txt:

$ cat foo.txt
Foo 0
Foo 1
$ cat bar.txt
Bar 0
Bar 1
Bar 2
Bar 3

Sources in ARGV

For any ARGF read except the simplest case (that is, except for the very first ARGF read with an empty ARGV), the sources are found in ARGV.

ARGF assumes that each element in array ARGV is a potential source, and is one of:

Each element that is not one of these should be removed from ARGV before ARGF accesses that source.

In the following example:

Example:

ARGF’s stream access considers the elements of ARGV, left to right:

Because the value at ARGV is an ordinary array, you can manipulate it to control which sources ARGF considers:

Each element in ARGV is removed when its corresponding source is accessed; when all sources have been accessed, the array is empty:

Filepaths in ARGV

The ARGV array may contain filepaths the specify sources for ARGF reading.

This program prints what it reads from files at the paths specified on the command line:

Specifying $stdin in ARGV

To specify stream $stdin in ARGV, us the character '-':

When no character '-' is given, stream $stdin is ignored (exception: see Specifying $stdin in ARGV):

Mixtures and Repetitions in ARGV

For an ARGF reader, ARGV may contain any mixture of filepaths and character '-', including repetitions.

Modifications to ARGV

The running Ruby program may make any modifications to the ARGV array; the current value of ARGV affects ARGF reading.

Empty ARGV

For an empty ARGV, an ARGF read method either returns nil or raises an exception, depending on the specific method.

More Read Methods

As seen above, method ARGF#read reads the content of all sources into a single string. Other ARGF methods provide other ways to access that content; these include:

About Enumerable

ARGF includes module Enumerable. Virtually all methods in Enumerable call method #each in the including class.

Note well: In ARGF, method each returns data from the sources, not from ARGV; therefore, for example, ARGF#entries returns an array of lines from the sources, not an array of the strings from ARGV:

Writing

If inplace mode is in effect, ARGF may write to target streams, which at any particular time are determined by the content of ARGV.

Methods about inplace mode:

Methods for writing:

IPAddr

IPAddr provides a set of methods to manipulate an IP address. Both IPv4 and IPv6 are supported.

Example 

require 'ipaddr'

ipaddr1 = IPAddr.new "3ffe:505:2::1"

p ipaddr1                   #=> #<IPAddr: IPv6:3ffe:0505:0002:0000:0000:0000:0000:0001/ffff:ffff:ffff:ffff:ffff:ffff:ffff:ffff>

p ipaddr1.to_s              #=> "3ffe:505:2::1"

ipaddr2 = ipaddr1.mask(48)  #=> #<IPAddr: IPv6:3ffe:0505:0002:0000:0000:0000:0000:0000/ffff:ffff:ffff:0000:0000:0000:0000:0000>

p ipaddr2.to_s              #=> "3ffe:505:2::"

ipaddr3 = IPAddr.new "192.168.2.0/24"

p ipaddr3                   #=> #<IPAddr: IPv4:192.168.2.0/255.255.255.0>

Warning

The Warning module contains a single method named warn, and the module extends itself, making Warning.warn available. Warning.warn is called for all warnings issued by Ruby. By default, warnings are printed to $stderr.

Changing the behavior of Warning.warn is useful to customize how warnings are handled by Ruby, for instance by filtering some warnings, and/or outputting warnings somewhere other than $stderr.

If you want to change the behavior of Warning.warn you should use Warning.extend(MyNewModuleWithWarnMethod) and you can use super to get the default behavior of printing the warning to $stderr.

Example:

module MyWarningFilter
  def warn(message, category: nil, **kwargs)
    if /some warning I want to ignore/.match?(message)
      # ignore
    else
      super
    end
  end
end
Warning.extend MyWarningFilter

You should never redefine Warning#warn (the instance method), as that will then no longer provide a way to use the default behavior.

The warning gem provides convenient ways to customize Warning.warn.

JSON

JavaScript Object Notation (JSON)

JSON is a lightweight data-interchange format.

A JSON value is one of the following:

A JSON array or object may contain nested arrays, objects, and scalars to any depth:

{"foo": {"bar": 1, "baz": 2}, "bat": [0, 1, 2]}
[{"foo": 0, "bar": 1}, ["baz", 2]]

Using Module JSON

To make module JSON available in your code, begin with:

require 'json'

All examples here assume that this has been done.

Parsing JSON

You can parse a String containing JSON data using either of two methods:

where

The difference between the two methods is that JSON.parse! omits some checks and may not be safe for some source data; use it only for data from trusted sources. Use the safer method JSON.parse for less trusted sources.

Parsing JSON Arrays

When source is a JSON array, JSON.parse by default returns a Ruby Array:

json = '["foo", 1, 1.0, 2.0e2, true, false, null]'
ruby = JSON.parse(json)
ruby # => ["foo", 1, 1.0, 200.0, true, false, nil]
ruby.class # => Array

The JSON array may contain nested arrays, objects, and scalars to any depth:

json = '[{"foo": 0, "bar": 1}, ["baz", 2]]'
JSON.parse(json) # => [{"foo"=>0, "bar"=>1}, ["baz", 2]]

Parsing JSON Objects

When the source is a JSON object, JSON.parse by default returns a Ruby Hash:

json = '{"a": "foo", "b": 1, "c": 1.0, "d": 2.0e2, "e": true, "f": false, "g": null}'
ruby = JSON.parse(json)
ruby # => {"a"=>"foo", "b"=>1, "c"=>1.0, "d"=>200.0, "e"=>true, "f"=>false, "g"=>nil}
ruby.class # => Hash

The JSON object may contain nested arrays, objects, and scalars to any depth:

json = '{"foo": {"bar": 1, "baz": 2}, "bat": [0, 1, 2]}'
JSON.parse(json) # => {"foo"=>{"bar"=>1, "baz"=>2}, "bat"=>[0, 1, 2]}

Parsing JSON Scalars

When the source is a JSON scalar (not an array or object), JSON.parse returns a Ruby scalar.

String:

ruby = JSON.parse('"foo"')
ruby # => 'foo'
ruby.class # => String

Integer:

ruby = JSON.parse('1')
ruby # => 1
ruby.class # => Integer

Float:

ruby = JSON.parse('1.0')
ruby # => 1.0
ruby.class # => Float
ruby = JSON.parse('2.0e2')
ruby # => 200
ruby.class # => Float

Boolean:

ruby = JSON.parse('true')
ruby # => true
ruby.class # => TrueClass
ruby = JSON.parse('false')
ruby # => false
ruby.class # => FalseClass

Null:

ruby = JSON.parse('null')
ruby # => nil
ruby.class # => NilClass

Parsing Options

Input Options

Option max_nesting (Integer) specifies the maximum nesting depth allowed; defaults to 100; specify false to disable depth checking.

With the default, false:

source = '[0, [1, [2, [3]]]]'
ruby = JSON.parse(source)
ruby # => [0, [1, [2, [3]]]]

Too deep:

# Raises JSON::NestingError (nesting of 2 is too deep):
JSON.parse(source, {max_nesting: 1})

Bad value:

# Raises TypeError (wrong argument type Symbol (expected Fixnum)):
JSON.parse(source, {max_nesting: :foo})

Option allow_nan (boolean) specifies whether to allow NaN, Infinity, and MinusInfinity in source; defaults to false.

With the default, false:

# Raises JSON::ParserError (225: unexpected token at '[NaN]'):
JSON.parse('[NaN]')
# Raises JSON::ParserError (232: unexpected token at '[Infinity]'):
JSON.parse('[Infinity]')
# Raises JSON::ParserError (248: unexpected token at '[-Infinity]'):
JSON.parse('[-Infinity]')

Allow:

source = '[NaN, Infinity, -Infinity]'
ruby = JSON.parse(source, {allow_nan: true})
ruby # => [NaN, Infinity, -Infinity]
Output Options

Option symbolize_names (boolean) specifies whether returned Hash keys should be Symbols; defaults to false (use Strings).

With the default, false:

source = '{"a": "foo", "b": 1.0, "c": true, "d": false, "e": null}'
ruby = JSON.parse(source)
ruby # => {"a"=>"foo", "b"=>1.0, "c"=>true, "d"=>false, "e"=>nil}

Use Symbols:

ruby = JSON.parse(source, {symbolize_names: true})
ruby # => {:a=>"foo", :b=>1.0, :c=>true, :d=>false, :e=>nil}

Option object_class (Class) specifies the Ruby class to be used for each JSON object; defaults to Hash.

With the default, Hash:

source = '{"a": "foo", "b": 1.0, "c": true, "d": false, "e": null}'
ruby = JSON.parse(source)
ruby.class # => Hash

Use class OpenStruct:

ruby = JSON.parse(source, {object_class: OpenStruct})
ruby # => #<OpenStruct a="foo", b=1.0, c=true, d=false, e=nil>

Option array_class (Class) specifies the Ruby class to be used for each JSON array; defaults to Array.

With the default, Array:

source = '["foo", 1.0, true, false, null]'
ruby = JSON.parse(source)
ruby.class # => Array

Use class Set:

ruby = JSON.parse(source, {array_class: Set})
ruby # => #<Set: {"foo", 1.0, true, false, nil}>

Option create_additions (boolean) specifies whether to use JSON additions in parsing. See JSON Additions.

Generating JSON

To generate a Ruby String containing JSON data, use method JSON.generate(source, opts), where

Generating JSON from Arrays

When the source is a Ruby Array, JSON.generate returns a String containing a JSON array:

ruby = [0, 's', :foo]
json = JSON.generate(ruby)
json # => '[0,"s","foo"]'

The Ruby Array array may contain nested arrays, hashes, and scalars to any depth:

ruby = [0, [1, 2], {foo: 3, bar: 4}]
json = JSON.generate(ruby)
json # => '[0,[1,2],{"foo":3,"bar":4}]'

Generating JSON from Hashes

When the source is a Ruby Hash, JSON.generate returns a String containing a JSON object:

ruby = {foo: 0, bar: 's', baz: :bat}
json = JSON.generate(ruby)
json # => '{"foo":0,"bar":"s","baz":"bat"}'

The Ruby Hash array may contain nested arrays, hashes, and scalars to any depth:

ruby = {foo: [0, 1], bar: {baz: 2, bat: 3}, bam: :bad}
json = JSON.generate(ruby)
json # => '{"foo":[0,1],"bar":{"baz":2,"bat":3},"bam":"bad"}'

Generating JSON from Other Objects

When the source is neither an Array nor a Hash, the generated JSON data depends on the class of the source.

When the source is a Ruby Integer or Float, JSON.generate returns a String containing a JSON number:

JSON.generate(42) # => '42'
JSON.generate(0.42) # => '0.42'

When the source is a Ruby String, JSON.generate returns a String containing a JSON string (with double-quotes):

JSON.generate('A string') # => '"A string"'

When the source is true, false or nil, JSON.generate returns a String containing the corresponding JSON token:

JSON.generate(true) # => 'true'
JSON.generate(false) # => 'false'
JSON.generate(nil) # => 'null'

When the source is none of the above, JSON.generate returns a String containing a JSON string representation of the source:

JSON.generate(:foo) # => '"foo"'
JSON.generate(Complex(0, 0)) # => '"0+0i"'
JSON.generate(Dir.new('.')) # => '"#<Dir>"'

Generating Options

Input Options

Option allow_nan (boolean) specifies whether NaN, Infinity, and -Infinity may be generated; defaults to false.

With the default, false:

# Raises JSON::GeneratorError (920: NaN not allowed in JSON):
JSON.generate(JSON::NaN)
# Raises JSON::GeneratorError (917: Infinity not allowed in JSON):
JSON.generate(JSON::Infinity)
# Raises JSON::GeneratorError (917: -Infinity not allowed in JSON):
JSON.generate(JSON::MinusInfinity)

Allow:

ruby = [Float::NaN, Float::Infinity, Float::MinusInfinity]
JSON.generate(ruby, allow_nan: true) # => '[NaN,Infinity,-Infinity]'

Option max_nesting (Integer) specifies the maximum nesting depth in obj; defaults to 100.

With the default, 100:

obj = [[[[[[0]]]]]]
JSON.generate(obj) # => '[[[[[[0]]]]]]'

Too deep:

# Raises JSON::NestingError (nesting of 2 is too deep):
JSON.generate(obj, max_nesting: 2)
Escaping Options

Options script_safe (boolean) specifies wether '\u2028', '\u2029' and '/' should be escaped as to make the JSON object safe to interpolate in script tags.

Options ascii_only (boolean) specifies wether all characters outside the ASCII range should be escaped.

Output Options

The default formatting options generate the most compact JSON data, all on one line and with no whitespace.

You can use these formatting options to generate JSON data in a more open format, using whitespace. See also JSON.pretty_generate.

In this example, obj is used first to generate the shortest JSON data (no whitespace), then again with all formatting options specified:

obj = {foo: [:bar, :baz], bat: {bam: 0, bad: 1}}
json = JSON.generate(obj)
puts 'Compact:', json
opts = {
  array_nl: "\n",
  object_nl: "\n",
  indent: '  ',
  space_before: ' ',
  space: ' '
}
puts 'Open:', JSON.generate(obj, opts)

Output:

Compact:
{"foo":["bar","baz"],"bat":{"bam":0,"bad":1}}
Open:
{
  "foo" : [
    "bar",
    "baz"
],
  "bat" : {
    "bam" : 0,
    "bad" : 1
  }
}

JSON Additions

When you “round trip” a non-String object from Ruby to JSON and back, you have a new String, instead of the object you began with:

ruby0 = Range.new(0, 2)
json = JSON.generate(ruby0)
json # => '0..2"'
ruby1 = JSON.parse(json)
ruby1 # => '0..2'
ruby1.class # => String

You can use JSON additions to preserve the original object. The addition is an extension of a ruby class, so that:

This example shows a Range being generated into JSON and parsed back into Ruby, both without and with the addition for Range:

ruby = Range.new(0, 2)
# This passage does not use the addition for Range.
json0 = JSON.generate(ruby)
ruby0 = JSON.parse(json0)
# This passage uses the addition for Range.
require 'json/add/range'
json1 = JSON.generate(ruby)
ruby1 = JSON.parse(json1, create_additions: true)
# Make a nice display.
display = <<~EOT
  Generated JSON:
    Without addition:  #{json0} (#{json0.class})
    With addition:     #{json1} (#{json1.class})
  Parsed JSON:
    Without addition:  #{ruby0.inspect} (#{ruby0.class})
    With addition:     #{ruby1.inspect} (#{ruby1.class})
EOT
puts display

This output shows the different results:

Generated JSON:
  Without addition:  "0..2" (String)
  With addition:     {"json_class":"Range","a":[0,2,false]} (String)
Parsed JSON:
  Without addition:  "0..2" (String)
  With addition:     0..2 (Range)

The JSON module includes additions for certain classes. You can also craft custom additions. See Custom JSON Additions.

Built-in Additions

The JSON module includes additions for certain classes. To use an addition, require its source:

To reduce punctuation clutter, the examples below show the generated JSON via puts, rather than the usual inspect,

BigDecimal:

require 'json/add/bigdecimal'
ruby0 = BigDecimal(0) # 0.0
json = JSON.generate(ruby0) # {"json_class":"BigDecimal","b":"27:0.0"}
ruby1 = JSON.parse(json, create_additions: true) # 0.0
ruby1.class # => BigDecimal

Complex:

require 'json/add/complex'
ruby0 = Complex(1+0i) # 1+0i
json = JSON.generate(ruby0) # {"json_class":"Complex","r":1,"i":0}
ruby1 = JSON.parse(json, create_additions: true) # 1+0i
ruby1.class # Complex

Date:

require 'json/add/date'
ruby0 = Date.today # 2020-05-02
json = JSON.generate(ruby0) # {"json_class":"Date","y":2020,"m":5,"d":2,"sg":2299161.0}
ruby1 = JSON.parse(json, create_additions: true) # 2020-05-02
ruby1.class # Date

DateTime:

require 'json/add/date_time'
ruby0 = DateTime.now # 2020-05-02T10:38:13-05:00
json = JSON.generate(ruby0) # {"json_class":"DateTime","y":2020,"m":5,"d":2,"H":10,"M":38,"S":13,"of":"-5/24","sg":2299161.0}
ruby1 = JSON.parse(json, create_additions: true) # 2020-05-02T10:38:13-05:00
ruby1.class # DateTime

Exception (and its subclasses including RuntimeError):

require 'json/add/exception'
ruby0 = Exception.new('A message') # A message
json = JSON.generate(ruby0) # {"json_class":"Exception","m":"A message","b":null}
ruby1 = JSON.parse(json, create_additions: true) # A message
ruby1.class # Exception
ruby0 = RuntimeError.new('Another message') # Another message
json = JSON.generate(ruby0) # {"json_class":"RuntimeError","m":"Another message","b":null}
ruby1 = JSON.parse(json, create_additions: true) # Another message
ruby1.class # RuntimeError

OpenStruct:

require 'json/add/ostruct'
ruby0 = OpenStruct.new(name: 'Matz', language: 'Ruby') # #<OpenStruct name="Matz", language="Ruby">
json = JSON.generate(ruby0) # {"json_class":"OpenStruct","t":{"name":"Matz","language":"Ruby"}}
ruby1 = JSON.parse(json, create_additions: true) # #<OpenStruct name="Matz", language="Ruby">
ruby1.class # OpenStruct

Range:

require 'json/add/range'
ruby0 = Range.new(0, 2) # 0..2
json = JSON.generate(ruby0) # {"json_class":"Range","a":[0,2,false]}
ruby1 = JSON.parse(json, create_additions: true) # 0..2
ruby1.class # Range

Rational:

require 'json/add/rational'
ruby0 = Rational(1, 3) # 1/3
json = JSON.generate(ruby0) # {"json_class":"Rational","n":1,"d":3}
ruby1 = JSON.parse(json, create_additions: true) # 1/3
ruby1.class # Rational

Regexp:

require 'json/add/regexp'
ruby0 = Regexp.new('foo') # (?-mix:foo)
json = JSON.generate(ruby0) # {"json_class":"Regexp","o":0,"s":"foo"}
ruby1 = JSON.parse(json, create_additions: true) # (?-mix:foo)
ruby1.class # Regexp

Set:

require 'json/add/set'
ruby0 = Set.new([0, 1, 2]) # #<Set: {0, 1, 2}>
json = JSON.generate(ruby0) # {"json_class":"Set","a":[0,1,2]}
ruby1 = JSON.parse(json, create_additions: true) # #<Set: {0, 1, 2}>
ruby1.class # Set

Struct:

require 'json/add/struct'
Customer = Struct.new(:name, :address) # Customer
ruby0 = Customer.new("Dave", "123 Main") # #<struct Customer name="Dave", address="123 Main">
json = JSON.generate(ruby0) # {"json_class":"Customer","v":["Dave","123 Main"]}
ruby1 = JSON.parse(json, create_additions: true) # #<struct Customer name="Dave", address="123 Main">
ruby1.class # Customer

Symbol:

require 'json/add/symbol'
ruby0 = :foo # foo
json = JSON.generate(ruby0) # {"json_class":"Symbol","s":"foo"}
ruby1 = JSON.parse(json, create_additions: true) # foo
ruby1.class # Symbol

Time:

require 'json/add/time'
ruby0 = Time.now # 2020-05-02 11:28:26 -0500
json = JSON.generate(ruby0) # {"json_class":"Time","s":1588436906,"n":840560000}
ruby1 = JSON.parse(json, create_additions: true) # 2020-05-02 11:28:26 -0500
ruby1.class # Time

Custom JSON Additions

In addition to the JSON additions provided, you can craft JSON additions of your own, either for Ruby built-in classes or for user-defined classes.

Here’s a user-defined class Foo:

class Foo
  attr_accessor :bar, :baz
  def initialize(bar, baz)
    self.bar = bar
    self.baz = baz
  end
end

Here’s the JSON addition for it:

# Extend class Foo with JSON addition.
class Foo
  # Serialize Foo object with its class name and arguments
  def to_json(*args)
    {
      JSON.create_id  => self.class.name,
      'a'             => [ bar, baz ]
    }.to_json(*args)
  end
  # Deserialize JSON string by constructing new Foo object with arguments.
  def self.json_create(object)
    new(*object['a'])
  end
end

Demonstration:

require 'json'
# This Foo object has no custom addition.
foo0 = Foo.new(0, 1)
json0 = JSON.generate(foo0)
obj0 = JSON.parse(json0)
# Lood the custom addition.
require_relative 'foo_addition'
# This foo has the custom addition.
foo1 = Foo.new(0, 1)
json1 = JSON.generate(foo1)
obj1 = JSON.parse(json1, create_additions: true)
#   Make a nice display.
display = <<~EOT
  Generated JSON:
    Without custom addition:  #{json0} (#{json0.class})
    With custom addition:     #{json1} (#{json1.class})
  Parsed JSON:
    Without custom addition:  #{obj0.inspect} (#{obj0.class})
    With custom addition:     #{obj1.inspect} (#{obj1.class})
EOT
puts display

Output:

Generated JSON:
  Without custom addition:  "#<Foo:0x0000000006534e80>" (String)
  With custom addition:     {"json_class":"Foo","a":[0,1]} (String)
Parsed JSON:
  Without custom addition:  "#<Foo:0x0000000006534e80>" (String)
  With custom addition:     #<Foo:0x0000000006473bb8 @bar=0, @baz=1> (Foo)

ObjectSpace

The objspace library extends the ObjectSpace module and adds several methods to get internal statistic information about object/memory management.

You need to require 'objspace' to use this extension module.

Generally, you SHOULD NOT use this library if you do not know about the MRI implementation. Mainly, this library is for (memory) profiler developers and MRI developers who need to know about MRI memory usage.

The ObjectSpace module contains a number of routines that interact with the garbage collection facility and allow you to traverse all living objects with an iterator.

ObjectSpace also provides support for object finalizers, procs that will be called after a specific object was destroyed by garbage collection. See the documentation for ObjectSpace.define_finalizer for important information on how to use this method correctly.

a = "A"
b = "B"

ObjectSpace.define_finalizer(a, proc {|id| puts "Finalizer one on #{id}" })
ObjectSpace.define_finalizer(b, proc {|id| puts "Finalizer two on #{id}" })

a = nil
b = nil

produces:

Finalizer two on 537763470
Finalizer one on 537763480

RbConfig

No documentation available

Benchmark

The Benchmark module provides methods to measure and report the time used to execute Ruby code.

The result:

              user     system      total        real
for:      1.010000   0.000000   1.010000 (  1.015688)
times:    1.000000   0.000000   1.000000 (  1.003611)
upto:     1.030000   0.000000   1.030000 (  1.028098)

Forwardable

The Forwardable module provides delegation of specified methods to a designated object, using the methods def_delegator and def_delegators.

For example, say you have a class RecordCollection which contains an array @records. You could provide the lookup method record_number(), which simply calls [] on the @records array, like this:

require 'forwardable'

class RecordCollection
  attr_accessor :records
  extend Forwardable
  def_delegator :@records, :[], :record_number
end

We can use the lookup method like so:

r = RecordCollection.new
r.records = [4,5,6]
r.record_number(0)  # => 4

Further, if you wish to provide the methods size, <<, and map, all of which delegate to @records, this is how you can do it:

class RecordCollection # re-open RecordCollection class
  def_delegators :@records, :size, :<<, :map
end

r = RecordCollection.new
r.records = [1,2,3]
r.record_number(0)   # => 1
r.size               # => 3
r << 4               # => [1, 2, 3, 4]
r.map { |x| x * 2 }  # => [2, 4, 6, 8]

You can even extend regular objects with Forwardable.

my_hash = Hash.new
my_hash.extend Forwardable              # prepare object for delegation
my_hash.def_delegator "STDOUT", "puts"  # add delegation for STDOUT.puts()
my_hash.puts "Howdy!"

Another example

You could use Forwardable as an alternative to inheritance, when you don’t want to inherit all methods from the superclass. For instance, here is how you might add a range of Array instance methods to a new class Queue:

class Queue
  extend Forwardable

  def initialize
    @q = [ ]    # prepare delegate object
  end

  # setup preferred interface, enq() and deq()...
  def_delegator :@q, :push, :enq
  def_delegator :@q, :shift, :deq

  # support some general Array methods that fit Queues well
  def_delegators :@q, :clear, :first, :push, :shift, :size
end

q = Thread::Queue.new
q.enq 1, 2, 3, 4, 5
q.push 6

q.shift    # => 1
while q.size > 0
  puts q.deq
end

q.enq "Ruby", "Perl", "Python"
puts q.first
q.clear
puts q.first

This should output:

2
3
4
5
6
Ruby
nil

Notes

Be advised, RDoc will not detect delegated methods.

forwardable.rb provides single-method delegation via the def_delegator and def_delegators methods. For full-class delegation via DelegateClass, see delegate.rb.

SingleForwardable

SingleForwardable can be used to setup delegation at the object level as well.

printer = String.new
printer.extend SingleForwardable        # prepare object for delegation
printer.def_delegator "STDOUT", "puts"  # add delegation for STDOUT.puts()
printer.puts "Howdy!"

Also, SingleForwardable can be used to set up delegation for a Class or Module.

class Implementation
  def self.service
    puts "serviced!"
  end
end

module Facade
  extend SingleForwardable
  def_delegator :Implementation, :service
end

Facade.service #=> serviced!

If you want to use both Forwardable and SingleForwardable, you can use methods def_instance_delegator and def_single_delegator, etc.

RbConfig

No documentation available

Singleton

The Singleton module implements the Singleton pattern.

Usage

To use Singleton, include the module in your class.

class Klass
   include Singleton
   # ...
end

This ensures that only one instance of Klass can be created.

a,b = Klass.instance, Klass.instance

a == b
# => true

Klass.new
# => NoMethodError - new is private ...

The instance is created at upon the first call of Klass.instance().

class OtherKlass
  include Singleton
  # ...
end

ObjectSpace.each_object(OtherKlass){}
# => 0

OtherKlass.instance
ObjectSpace.each_object(OtherKlass){}
# => 1

This behavior is preserved under inheritance and cloning.

Implementation

This above is achieved by:

Singleton and Marshal

By default Singleton’s _dump(depth) returns the empty string. Marshalling by default will strip state information, e.g. instance variables from the instance. Classes using Singleton can provide custom _load(str) and _dump(depth) methods to retain some of the previous state of the instance.

require 'singleton'

class Example
  include Singleton
  attr_accessor :keep, :strip
  def _dump(depth)
    # this strips the @strip information from the instance
    Marshal.dump(@keep, depth)
  end

  def self._load(str)
    instance.keep = Marshal.load(str)
    instance
  end
end

a = Example.instance
a.keep = "keep this"
a.strip = "get rid of this"

stored_state = Marshal.dump(a)

a.keep = nil
a.strip = nil
b = Marshal.load(stored_state)
p a == b  #  => true
p a.keep  #  => "keep this"
p a.strip #  => nil

RactorLocalSingleton

No documentation available

TSort

TSort implements topological sorting using Tarjan’s algorithm for strongly connected components.

TSort is designed to be able to be used with any object which can be interpreted as a directed graph.

TSort requires two methods to interpret an object as a graph, tsort_each_node and tsort_each_child.

The equality of nodes are defined by eql? and hash since TSort uses Hash internally.

A Simple Example

The following example demonstrates how to mix the TSort module into an existing class (in this case, Hash). Here, we’re treating each key in the hash as a node in the graph, and so we simply alias the required tsort_each_node method to Hash’s each_key method. For each key in the hash, the associated value is an array of the node’s child nodes. This choice in turn leads to our implementation of the required tsort_each_child method, which fetches the array of child nodes and then iterates over that array using the user-supplied block.

require 'tsort'

class Hash
  include TSort
  alias tsort_each_node each_key
  def tsort_each_child(node, &block)
    fetch(node).each(&block)
  end
end

{1=>[2, 3], 2=>[3], 3=>[], 4=>[]}.tsort
#=> [3, 2, 1, 4]

{1=>[2], 2=>[3, 4], 3=>[2], 4=>[]}.strongly_connected_components
#=> [[4], [2, 3], [1]]

A More Realistic Example

A very simple ‘make’ like tool can be implemented as follows:

require 'tsort'

class Make
  def initialize
    @dep = {}
    @dep.default = []
  end

  def rule(outputs, inputs=[], &block)
    triple = [outputs, inputs, block]
    outputs.each {|f| @dep[f] = [triple]}
    @dep[triple] = inputs
  end

  def build(target)
    each_strongly_connected_component_from(target) {|ns|
      if ns.length != 1
        fs = ns.delete_if {|n| Array === n}
        raise TSort::Cyclic.new("cyclic dependencies: #{fs.join ', '}")
      end
      n = ns.first
      if Array === n
        outputs, inputs, block = n
        inputs_time = inputs.map {|f| File.mtime f}.max
        begin
          outputs_time = outputs.map {|f| File.mtime f}.min
        rescue Errno::ENOENT
          outputs_time = nil
        end
        if outputs_time == nil ||
           inputs_time != nil && outputs_time <= inputs_time
          sleep 1 if inputs_time != nil && inputs_time.to_i == Time.now.to_i
          block.call
        end
      end
    }
  end

  def tsort_each_child(node, &block)
    @dep[node].each(&block)
  end
  include TSort
end

def command(arg)
  print arg, "\n"
  system arg
end

m = Make.new
m.rule(%w[t1]) { command 'date > t1' }
m.rule(%w[t2]) { command 'date > t2' }
m.rule(%w[t3]) { command 'date > t3' }
m.rule(%w[t4], %w[t1 t3]) { command 'cat t1 t3 > t4' }
m.rule(%w[t5], %w[t4 t2]) { command 'cat t4 t2 > t5' }
m.build('t5')

Bugs

References

    1. Tarjan, “Depth First Search and Linear Graph Algorithms”,

SIAM Journal on Computing, Vol. 1, No. 2, pp. 146-160, June 1972.

Marshal

The marshaling library converts collections of Ruby objects into a byte stream, allowing them to be stored outside the currently active script. This data may subsequently be read and the original objects reconstituted.

Marshaled data has major and minor version numbers stored along with the object information. In normal use, marshaling can only load data written with the same major version number and an equal or lower minor version number. If Ruby’s “verbose” flag is set (normally using -d, -v, -w, or –verbose) the major and minor numbers must match exactly. Marshal versioning is independent of Ruby’s version numbers. You can extract the version by reading the first two bytes of marshaled data.

str = Marshal.dump("thing")
RUBY_VERSION   #=> "1.9.0"
str[0].ord     #=> 4
str[1].ord     #=> 8

Some objects cannot be dumped: if the objects to be dumped include bindings, procedure or method objects, instances of class IO, or singleton objects, a TypeError will be raised.

If your class has special serialization needs (for example, if you want to serialize in some specific format), or if it contains objects that would otherwise not be serializable, you can implement your own serialization strategy.

There are two methods of doing this, your object can define either marshal_dump and marshal_load or _dump and _load. marshal_dump will take precedence over _dump if both are defined. marshal_dump may result in smaller Marshal strings.

Security considerations

By design, Marshal.load can deserialize almost any class loaded into the Ruby process. In many cases this can lead to remote code execution if the Marshal data is loaded from an untrusted source.

As a result, Marshal.load is not suitable as a general purpose serialization format and you should never unmarshal user supplied input or other untrusted data.

If you need to deserialize untrusted data, use JSON or another serialization format that is only able to load simple, ‘primitive’ types such as String, Array, Hash, etc. Never allow user input to specify arbitrary types to deserialize into.

marshal_dump and marshal_load

When dumping an object the method marshal_dump will be called. marshal_dump must return a result containing the information necessary for marshal_load to reconstitute the object. The result can be any object.

When loading an object dumped using marshal_dump the object is first allocated then marshal_load is called with the result from marshal_dump. marshal_load must recreate the object from the information in the result.

Example:

class MyObj
  def initialize name, version, data
    @name    = name
    @version = version
    @data    = data
  end

  def marshal_dump
    [@name, @version]
  end

  def marshal_load array
    @name, @version = array
  end
end

_dump and _load

Use _dump and _load when you need to allocate the object you’re restoring yourself.

When dumping an object the instance method _dump is called with an Integer which indicates the maximum depth of objects to dump (a value of -1 implies that you should disable depth checking). _dump must return a String containing the information necessary to reconstitute the object.

The class method _load should take a String and use it to return an object of the same class.

Example:

class MyObj
  def initialize name, version, data
    @name    = name
    @version = version
    @data    = data
  end

  def _dump level
    [@name, @version].join ':'
  end

  def self._load args
    new(*args.split(':'))
  end
end

Since Marshal.dump outputs a string you can have _dump return a Marshal string which is Marshal.loaded in _load for complex objects.

Fiddle::CUnion

A base class for objects representing a C union

JSON::ParserError

This exception is raised if a parser error occurs.

JSON::NestingError

This exception is raised if the nesting of parsed data structures is too deep.

Psych::Parser

YAML event parser class. This class parses a YAML document and calls events on the handler that is passed to the constructor. The events can be used for things such as constructing a YAML AST or deserializing YAML documents. It can even be fed back to Psych::Emitter to emit the same document that was parsed.

See Psych::Handler for documentation on the events that Psych::Parser emits.

Here is an example that prints out ever scalar found in a YAML document:

# Handler for detecting scalar values
class ScalarHandler < Psych::Handler
  def scalar value, anchor, tag, plain, quoted, style
    puts value
  end
end

parser = Psych::Parser.new(ScalarHandler.new)
parser.parse(yaml_document)

Here is an example that feeds the parser back in to Psych::Emitter. The YAML document is read from STDIN and written back out to STDERR:

parser = Psych::Parser.new(Psych::Emitter.new($stderr))
parser.parse($stdin)

Psych uses Psych::Parser in combination with Psych::TreeBuilder to construct an AST of the parsed YAML document.

WIN32OLE::RuntimeError

Raised when OLE processing failed.

EX:

obj = WIN32OLE.new("NonExistProgID")

raises the exception:

WIN32OLE::RuntimeError: unknown OLE server: `NonExistProgID'
    HRESULT error code:0x800401f3
      Invalid class string

WIN32OLE::Param

WIN32OLE::Param objects represent param information of the OLE method.

Zlib::VersionError

Subclass of Zlib::Error

When zlib returns a Z_VERSION_ERROR, usually if the zlib library version is incompatible with the version assumed by the caller.

IO::TimeoutError

Can be raised by IO operations when IO#timeout= is set.

IO::EAGAINWaitWritable

exception to wait for writing by EAGAIN. see IO.select.

IO::EWOULDBLOCKWaitWritable

exception to wait for writing by EWOULDBLOCK. see IO.select.

IO::EINPROGRESSWaitWritable

exception to wait for writing by EINPROGRESS. see IO.select.

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