Raised when attempting to convert special float values (in particular Infinity or NaN) to numerical classes which don’t support them.
Float::INFINITY.to_r #=> FloatDomainError: Infinity
The global value false is the only instance of class FalseClass and represents a logically false value in boolean expressions. The class provides operators allowing false to participate correctly in logical expressions.
Raised when Ruby can’t yield as requested.
A typical scenario is attempting to yield when no block is given:
def call_block yield 42 end call_block
raises the exception:
LocalJumpError: no block given (yield)
A more subtle example:
def get_me_a_return Proc.new { return 42 } end get_me_a_return.call
raises the exception:
LocalJumpError: unexpected return
Raised in case of a stack overflow.
def me_myself_and_i me_myself_and_i end me_myself_and_i
raises the exception:
SystemStackError: stack level too deep
Raised when given an invalid regexp expression.
Regexp.new("?")
raises the exception:
RegexpError: target of repeat operator is not specified: /?/
Raised when an invalid operation is attempted on a thread.
For example, when no other thread has been started:
Thread.stop
This will raises the following exception:
ThreadError: stopping only thread note: use sleep to stop forever
Raised when throw is called with a tag which does not have corresponding catch block.
throw "foo", "bar"
raises the exception:
UncaughtThrowError: uncaught throw "foo"
RubyGems adds the gem method to allow activation of specific gem versions and overrides the require method on Kernel to make gems appear as if they live on the $LOAD_PATH. See the documentation of these methods for further detail.
The Kernel module is included by class Object, so its methods are available in every Ruby object.
The Kernel instance methods are documented in class Object while the module methods are documented here. These methods are called without a receiver and thus can be called in functional form:
sprintf "%.1f", 1.234 #=> "1.2"
The Enumerable mixin provides collection classes with several traversal and searching methods, and with the ability to sort. The class must provide a method each, which yields successive members of the collection. If Enumerable#max, #min, or #sort is used, the objects in the collection must also implement a meaningful <=> operator, as these methods rely on an ordering between members of the collection.
Ruby exception objects are subclasses of Exception. However, operating systems typically report errors using plain integers. Module Errno is created dynamically to map these operating system errors to Ruby classes, with each error number generating its own subclass of SystemCallError. As the subclass is created in module Errno, its name will start Errno::.
The names of the Errno:: classes depend on the environment in which Ruby runs. On a typical Unix or Windows platform, there are Errno classes such as Errno::EACCES, Errno::EAGAIN, Errno::EINTR, and so on.
The integer operating system error number corresponding to a particular error is available as the class constant Errno::error::Errno.
Errno::EACCES::Errno #=> 13 Errno::EAGAIN::Errno #=> 11 Errno::EINTR::Errno #=> 4
The full list of operating system errors on your particular platform are available as the constants of Errno.
Errno.constants #=> :E2BIG, :EACCES, :EADDRINUSE, :EADDRNOTAVAIL, ...
System call error module used by webrick for cross platform compatibility.
EPROTO
protocol error
ECONNRESET
remote host reset the connection request
ECONNABORTED
Client sent TCP reset (RST) before server has accepted the connection requested by client.
The Warning module contains a single method named warn, and the module extends itself, making Warning.warn available. Warning.warn is called for all warnings issued by Ruby. By default, warnings are printed to $stderr.
By overriding Warning.warn, you can change how warnings are handled by Ruby, either filtering some warnings, and/or outputting warnings somewhere other than $stderr. When Warning.warn is overridden, super can be called to get the default behavior of printing the warning to $stderr.
newton.rb
Solves the nonlinear algebraic equation system f = 0 by Newton’s method. This program is not dependent on BigDecimal.
To call:
n = nlsolve(f,x)
where n is the number of iterations required,
x is the initial value vector
f is an Object which is used to compute the values of the equations to be solved.
It must provide the following methods:
returns the values of all functions at x
returns 0.0
returns 1.0
returns 2.0
returns 10.0
returns the convergence criterion (epsilon value) used to determine whether two values are considered equal. If |a-b| < epsilon, the two values are considered equal.
On exit, x is the solution vector.
Coverage provides coverage measurement feature for Ruby. This feature is experimental, so these APIs may be changed in future.
require “coverage”
require or load Ruby source file
Coverage.result will return a hash that contains filename as key and coverage array as value. A coverage array gives, for each line, the number of line execution by the interpreter. A nil value means coverage is disabled for this line (lines like else and end).
[foo.rb] s = 0 10.times do |x| s += x end if s == 45 p :ok else p :ng end [EOF] require "coverage" Coverage.start require "foo.rb" p Coverage.result #=> {"foo.rb"=>[1, 1, 10, nil, nil, 1, 1, nil, 0, nil]}
Object Notation (JSON) JSON is a lightweight data-interchange format. It is easy for us humans to read and write. Plus, equally simple for machines to generate or parse. JSON is completely language agnostic, making it the ideal interchange format.
Built on two universally available structures:
1. A collection of name/value pairs. Often referred to as an _object_, hash table, record, struct, keyed list, or associative array. 2. An ordered list of values. More commonly called an _array_, vector, sequence or list.
To read more about JSON visit: json.org
JSON To parse a JSON string received by another application or generated within your existing application:
require 'json' my_hash = JSON.parse('{"hello": "goodbye"}') puts my_hash["hello"] => "goodbye"
Notice the extra quotes '' around the hash notation. Ruby expects the argument to be a string and can’t convert objects like a hash or array.
Ruby converts your string into a hash
JSON Creating a JSON string for communication or serialization is just as simple.
require 'json' my_hash = {:hello => "goodbye"} puts JSON.generate(my_hash) => "{\"hello\":\"goodbye\"}"
Or an alternative way:
require 'json' puts {:hello => "goodbye"}.to_json => "{\"hello\":\"goodbye\"}"
JSON.generate only allows objects or arrays to be converted to JSON syntax. to_json, however, accepts many Ruby classes even though it acts only as a method for serialization:
require 'json' 1.to_json => "1"
Kanji Converter for Ruby.
The objspace library extends the ObjectSpace module and adds several methods to get internal statistic information about object/memory management.
You need to require 'objspace' to use this extension module.
Generally, you *SHOULD NOT* use this library if you do not know about the MRI implementation. Mainly, this library is for (memory) profiler developers and MRI developers who need to know about MRI memory usage.
The ObjectSpace module contains a number of routines that interact with the garbage collection facility and allow you to traverse all living objects with an iterator.
ObjectSpace also provides support for object finalizers, procs that will be called when a specific object is about to be destroyed by garbage collection.
require 'objspace' a = "A" b = "B" ObjectSpace.define_finalizer(a, proc {|id| puts "Finalizer one on #{id}" }) ObjectSpace.define_finalizer(b, proc {|id| puts "Finalizer two on #{id}" })
produces:
Finalizer two on 537763470 Finalizer one on 537763480
OpenSSL provides SSL, TLS and general purpose cryptography. It wraps the OpenSSL library.
All examples assume you have loaded OpenSSL with:
require 'openssl'
These examples build atop each other. For example the key created in the next is used in throughout these examples.
This example creates a 2048 bit RSA keypair and writes it to the current directory.
key = OpenSSL::PKey::RSA.new 2048 open 'private_key.pem', 'w' do |io| io.write key.to_pem end open 'public_key.pem', 'w' do |io| io.write key.public_key.to_pem end
Keys saved to disk without encryption are not secure as anyone who gets ahold of the key may use it unless it is encrypted. In order to securely export a key you may export it with a pass phrase.
cipher = OpenSSL::Cipher.new 'AES-128-CBC' pass_phrase = 'my secure pass phrase goes here' key_secure = key.export cipher, pass_phrase open 'private.secure.pem', 'w' do |io| io.write key_secure end
OpenSSL::Cipher.ciphers returns a list of available ciphers.
A key can also be loaded from a file.
key2 = OpenSSL::PKey::RSA.new File.read 'private_key.pem' key2.public? # => true key2.private? # => true
or
key3 = OpenSSL::PKey::RSA.new File.read 'public_key.pem' key3.public? # => true key3.private? # => false
OpenSSL will prompt you for your pass phrase when loading an encrypted key. If you will not be able to type in the pass phrase you may provide it when loading the key:
key4_pem = File.read 'private.secure.pem' pass_phrase = 'my secure pass phrase goes here' key4 = OpenSSL::PKey::RSA.new key4_pem, pass_phrase
RSA provides encryption and decryption using the public and private keys. You can use a variety of padding methods depending upon the intended use of encrypted data.
Asymmetric public/private key encryption is slow and victim to attack in cases where it is used without padding or directly to encrypt larger chunks of data. Typical use cases for RSA encryption involve “wrapping” a symmetric key with the public key of the recipient who would “unwrap” that symmetric key again using their private key. The following illustrates a simplified example of such a key transport scheme. It shouldn’t be used in practice, though, standardized protocols should always be preferred.
wrapped_key = key.public_encrypt key
A symmetric key encrypted with the public key can only be decrypted with the corresponding private key of the recipient.
original_key = key.private_decrypt wrapped_key
By default PKCS#1 padding will be used, but it is also possible to use other forms of padding, see PKey::RSA for further details.
Using “private_encrypt” to encrypt some data with the private key is equivalent to applying a digital signature to the data. A verifying party may validate the signature by comparing the result of decrypting the signature with “public_decrypt” to the original data. However, OpenSSL::PKey already has methods “sign” and “verify” that handle digital signatures in a standardized way - “private_encrypt” and “public_decrypt” shouldn’t be used in practice.
To sign a document, a cryptographically secure hash of the document is computed first, which is then signed using the private key.
digest = OpenSSL::Digest::SHA256.new signature = key.sign digest, document
To validate the signature, again a hash of the document is computed and the signature is decrypted using the public key. The result is then compared to the hash just computed, if they are equal the signature was valid.
digest = OpenSSL::Digest::SHA256.new if key.verify digest, signature, document puts 'Valid' else puts 'Invalid' end
If supported by the underlying OpenSSL version used, Password-based Encryption should use the features of PKCS5. If not supported or if required by legacy applications, the older, less secure methods specified in RFC 2898 are also supported (see below).
PKCS5 supports PBKDF2 as it was specified in PKCS#5 v2.0. It still uses a password, a salt, and additionally a number of iterations that will slow the key derivation process down. The slower this is, the more work it requires being able to brute-force the resulting key.
The strategy is to first instantiate a Cipher for encryption, and then to generate a random IV plus a key derived from the password using PBKDF2. PKCS #5 v2.0 recommends at least 8 bytes for the salt, the number of iterations largely depends on the hardware being used.
cipher = OpenSSL::Cipher.new 'AES-128-CBC' cipher.encrypt iv = cipher.random_iv pwd = 'some hopefully not to easily guessable password' salt = OpenSSL::Random.random_bytes 16 iter = 20000 key_len = cipher.key_len digest = OpenSSL::Digest::SHA256.new key = OpenSSL::PKCS5.pbkdf2_hmac(pwd, salt, iter, key_len, digest) cipher.key = key Now encrypt the data: encrypted = cipher.update document encrypted << cipher.final
Use the same steps as before to derive the symmetric AES key, this time setting the Cipher up for decryption.
cipher = OpenSSL::Cipher.new 'AES-128-CBC' cipher.decrypt cipher.iv = iv # the one generated with #random_iv pwd = 'some hopefully not to easily guessable password' salt = ... # the one generated above iter = 20000 key_len = cipher.key_len digest = OpenSSL::Digest::SHA256.new key = OpenSSL::PKCS5.pbkdf2_hmac(pwd, salt, iter, key_len, digest) cipher.key = key Now decrypt the data: decrypted = cipher.update encrypted decrypted << cipher.final
PKCS #5 is a password-based encryption standard documented at RFC2898. It allows a short password or passphrase to be used to create a secure encryption key. If possible, PBKDF2 as described above should be used if the circumstances allow it.
PKCS #5 uses a Cipher, a pass phrase and a salt to generate an encryption key.
pass_phrase = 'my secure pass phrase goes here' salt = '8 octets'
First set up the cipher for encryption
encryptor = OpenSSL::Cipher.new 'AES-128-CBC' encryptor.encrypt encryptor.pkcs5_keyivgen pass_phrase, salt
Then pass the data you want to encrypt through
encrypted = encryptor.update 'top secret document' encrypted << encryptor.final
Use a new Cipher instance set up for decryption
decryptor = OpenSSL::Cipher.new 'AES-128-CBC' decryptor.decrypt decryptor.pkcs5_keyivgen pass_phrase, salt
Then pass the data you want to decrypt through
plain = decryptor.update encrypted plain << decryptor.final
X509 Certificates This example creates a self-signed certificate using an RSA key and a SHA1 signature.
key = OpenSSL::PKey::RSA.new 2048 name = OpenSSL::X509::Name.parse 'CN=nobody/DC=example' cert = OpenSSL::X509::Certificate.new cert.version = 2 cert.serial = 0 cert.not_before = Time.now cert.not_after = Time.now + 3600 cert.public_key = key.public_key cert.subject = name
You can add extensions to the certificate with OpenSSL::SSL::ExtensionFactory to indicate the purpose of the certificate.
extension_factory = OpenSSL::X509::ExtensionFactory.new nil, cert cert.add_extension \ extension_factory.create_extension('basicConstraints', 'CA:FALSE', true) cert.add_extension \ extension_factory.create_extension( 'keyUsage', 'keyEncipherment,dataEncipherment,digitalSignature') cert.add_extension \ extension_factory.create_extension('subjectKeyIdentifier', 'hash')
The list of supported extensions (and in some cases their possible values) can be derived from the “objects.h” file in the OpenSSL source code.
To sign a certificate set the issuer and use OpenSSL::X509::Certificate#sign with a digest algorithm. This creates a self-signed cert because we’re using the same name and key to sign the certificate as was used to create the certificate.
cert.issuer = name cert.sign key, OpenSSL::Digest::SHA1.new open 'certificate.pem', 'w' do |io| io.write cert.to_pem end
Like a key, a cert can also be loaded from a file.
cert2 = OpenSSL::X509::Certificate.new File.read 'certificate.pem'
Certificate#verify will return true when a certificate was signed with the given public key.
raise 'certificate can not be verified' unless cert2.verify key
A certificate authority (CA) is a trusted third party that allows you to verify the ownership of unknown certificates. The CA issues key signatures that indicate it trusts the user of that key. A user encountering the key can verify the signature by using the CA’s public key.
CA keys are valuable, so we encrypt and save it to disk and make sure it is not readable by other users.
ca_key = OpenSSL::PKey::RSA.new 2048 pass_phrase = 'my secure pass phrase goes here' cipher = OpenSSL::Cipher.new 'AES-128-CBC' open 'ca_key.pem', 'w', 0400 do |io| io.write ca_key.export(cipher, pass_phrase) end
A CA certificate is created the same way we created a certificate above, but with different extensions.
ca_name = OpenSSL::X509::Name.parse 'CN=ca/DC=example' ca_cert = OpenSSL::X509::Certificate.new ca_cert.serial = 0 ca_cert.version = 2 ca_cert.not_before = Time.now ca_cert.not_after = Time.now + 86400 ca_cert.public_key = ca_key.public_key ca_cert.subject = ca_name ca_cert.issuer = ca_name extension_factory = OpenSSL::X509::ExtensionFactory.new extension_factory.subject_certificate = ca_cert extension_factory.issuer_certificate = ca_cert ca_cert.add_extension \ extension_factory.create_extension('subjectKeyIdentifier', 'hash')
This extension indicates the CA’s key may be used as a CA.
ca_cert.add_extension \ extension_factory.create_extension('basicConstraints', 'CA:TRUE', true)
This extension indicates the CA’s key may be used to verify signatures on both certificates and certificate revocations.
ca_cert.add_extension \ extension_factory.create_extension( 'keyUsage', 'cRLSign,keyCertSign', true)
Root CA certificates are self-signed.
ca_cert.sign ca_key, OpenSSL::Digest::SHA1.new
The CA certificate is saved to disk so it may be distributed to all the users of the keys this CA will sign.
open 'ca_cert.pem', 'w' do |io| io.write ca_cert.to_pem end
The CA signs keys through a Certificate Signing Request (CSR). The CSR contains the information necessary to identify the key.
csr = OpenSSL::X509::Request.new csr.version = 0 csr.subject = name csr.public_key = key.public_key csr.sign key, OpenSSL::Digest::SHA1.new
A CSR is saved to disk and sent to the CA for signing.
open 'csr.pem', 'w' do |io| io.write csr.to_pem end
Upon receiving a CSR the CA will verify it before signing it. A minimal verification would be to check the CSR’s signature.
csr = OpenSSL::X509::Request.new File.read 'csr.pem' raise 'CSR can not be verified' unless csr.verify csr.public_key
After verification a certificate is created, marked for various usages, signed with the CA key and returned to the requester.
csr_cert = OpenSSL::X509::Certificate.new csr_cert.serial = 0 csr_cert.version = 2 csr_cert.not_before = Time.now csr_cert.not_after = Time.now + 600 csr_cert.subject = csr.subject csr_cert.public_key = csr.public_key csr_cert.issuer = ca_cert.subject extension_factory = OpenSSL::X509::ExtensionFactory.new extension_factory.subject_certificate = csr_cert extension_factory.issuer_certificate = ca_cert csr_cert.add_extension \ extension_factory.create_extension('basicConstraints', 'CA:FALSE') csr_cert.add_extension \ extension_factory.create_extension( 'keyUsage', 'keyEncipherment,dataEncipherment,digitalSignature') csr_cert.add_extension \ extension_factory.create_extension('subjectKeyIdentifier', 'hash') csr_cert.sign ca_key, OpenSSL::Digest::SHA1.new open 'csr_cert.pem', 'w' do |io| io.write csr_cert.to_pem end
SSL and TLS Connections Using our created key and certificate we can create an SSL or TLS connection. An SSLContext is used to set up an SSL session.
context = OpenSSL::SSL::SSLContext.new
SSL Server An SSL server requires the certificate and private key to communicate securely with its clients:
context.cert = cert context.key = key
Then create an SSLServer with a TCP server socket and the context. Use the SSLServer like an ordinary TCP server.
require 'socket' tcp_server = TCPServer.new 5000 ssl_server = OpenSSL::SSL::SSLServer.new tcp_server, context loop do ssl_connection = ssl_server.accept data = connection.gets response = "I got #{data.dump}" puts response connection.puts "I got #{data.dump}" connection.close end
SSL client An SSL client is created with a TCP socket and the context. SSLSocket#connect must be called to initiate the SSL handshake and start encryption. A key and certificate are not required for the client socket.
Note that SSLSocket#close doesn’t close the underlying socket by default. Set SSLSocket#sync_close to true if you want.
require 'socket' tcp_socket = TCPSocket.new 'localhost', 5000 ssl_client = OpenSSL::SSL::SSLSocket.new tcp_socket, context ssl_client.sync_close = true ssl_client.connect ssl_client.puts "hello server!" puts ssl_client.gets ssl_client.close # shutdown the TLS connection and close tcp_socket
An unverified SSL connection does not provide much security. For enhanced security the client or server can verify the certificate of its peer.
The client can be modified to verify the server’s certificate against the certificate authority’s certificate:
context.ca_file = 'ca_cert.pem' context.verify_mode = OpenSSL::SSL::VERIFY_PEER require 'socket' tcp_socket = TCPSocket.new 'localhost', 5000 ssl_client = OpenSSL::SSL::SSLSocket.new tcp_socket, context ssl_client.connect ssl_client.puts "hello server!" puts ssl_client.gets
If the server certificate is invalid or context.ca_file is not set when verifying peers an OpenSSL::SSL::SSLError will be raised.
Creates and managed pseudo terminals (PTYs). See also en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pseudo_terminal
PTY allows you to allocate new terminals using ::open or ::spawn a new terminal with a specific command.
In this example we will change the buffering type in the factor command, assuming that factor uses stdio for stdout buffering.
If IO.pipe is used instead of PTY.open, this code deadlocks because factor’s stdout is fully buffered.
# start by requiring the standard library PTY require 'pty' master, slave = PTY.open read, write = IO.pipe pid = spawn("factor", :in=>read, :out=>slave) read.close # we dont need the read slave.close # or the slave # pipe "42" to the factor command write.puts "42" # output the response from factor p master.gets #=> "42: 2 3 7\n" # pipe "144" to factor and print out the response write.puts "144" p master.gets #=> "144: 2 2 2 2 3 3\n" write.close # close the pipe # The result of read operation when pty slave is closed is platform # dependent. ret = begin master.gets # FreeBSD returns nil. rescue Errno::EIO # GNU/Linux raises EIO. nil end p ret #=> nil
C) Copyright 1998 by Akinori Ito. This software may be redistributed freely for this purpose, in full or in part, provided that this entire copyright notice is included on any copies of this software and applications and derivations thereof. This software is provided on an "as is" basis, without warranty of any kind, either expressed or implied, as to any matter including, but not limited to warranty of fitness of purpose, or merchantability, or results obtained from use of this software.
The Base64 module provides for the encoding (encode64, strict_encode64, urlsafe_encode64) and decoding (decode64, strict_decode64, urlsafe_decode64) of binary data using a Base64 representation.
A simple encoding and decoding.
require "base64" enc = Base64.encode64('Send reinforcements') # -> "U2VuZCByZWluZm9yY2VtZW50cw==\n" plain = Base64.decode64(enc) # -> "Send reinforcements"
The purpose of using base64 to encode data is that it translates any binary data into purely printable characters.
The Benchmark module provides methods to measure and report the time used to execute Ruby code.
Measure the time to construct the string given by the expression "a"*1_000_000_000:
require 'benchmark' puts Benchmark.measure { "a"*1_000_000_000 }
On my machine (OSX 10.8.3 on i5 1.7 GHz) this generates:
0.350000 0.400000 0.750000 ( 0.835234)
This report shows the user CPU time, system CPU time, the sum of the user and system CPU times, and the elapsed real time. The unit of time is seconds.
Do some experiments sequentially using the bm method:
require 'benchmark' n = 5000000 Benchmark.bm do |x| x.report { for i in 1..n; a = "1"; end } x.report { n.times do ; a = "1"; end } x.report { 1.upto(n) do ; a = "1"; end } end
The result:
user system total real 1.010000 0.000000 1.010000 ( 1.014479) 1.000000 0.000000 1.000000 ( 0.998261) 0.980000 0.000000 0.980000 ( 0.981335)
Continuing the previous example, put a label in each report:
require 'benchmark' n = 5000000 Benchmark.bm(7) do |x| x.report("for:") { for i in 1..n; a = "1"; end } x.report("times:") { n.times do ; a = "1"; end } x.report("upto:") { 1.upto(n) do ; a = "1"; end } end
The result:
user system total real for: 1.010000 0.000000 1.010000 ( 1.015688) times: 1.000000 0.000000 1.000000 ( 1.003611) upto: 1.030000 0.000000 1.030000 ( 1.028098)
The times for some benchmarks depend on the order in which items are run. These differences are due to the cost of memory allocation and garbage collection. To avoid these discrepancies, the bmbm method is provided. For example, to compare ways to sort an array of floats:
require 'benchmark' array = (1..1000000).map { rand } Benchmark.bmbm do |x| x.report("sort!") { array.dup.sort! } x.report("sort") { array.dup.sort } end
The result:
Rehearsal -----------------------------------------
sort! 1.490000 0.010000 1.500000 ( 1.490520)
sort 1.460000 0.000000 1.460000 ( 1.463025)
-------------------------------- total: 2.960000sec
user system total real
sort! 1.460000 0.000000 1.460000 ( 1.460465)
sort 1.450000 0.010000 1.460000 ( 1.448327)
Report statistics of sequential experiments with unique labels, using the benchmark method:
require 'benchmark' include Benchmark # we need the CAPTION and FORMAT constants n = 5000000 Benchmark.benchmark(CAPTION, 7, FORMAT, ">total:", ">avg:") do |x| tf = x.report("for:") { for i in 1..n; a = "1"; end } tt = x.report("times:") { n.times do ; a = "1"; end } tu = x.report("upto:") { 1.upto(n) do ; a = "1"; end } [tf+tt+tu, (tf+tt+tu)/3] end
The result:
user system total real for: 0.950000 0.000000 0.950000 ( 0.952039) times: 0.980000 0.000000 0.980000 ( 0.984938) upto: 0.950000 0.000000 0.950000 ( 0.946787) >total: 2.880000 0.000000 2.880000 ( 2.883764) >avg: 0.960000 0.000000 0.960000 ( 0.961255)
Copyright © 2000-2007 Minero Aoki
This program is free software. You can distribute/modify this program under the same terms of ruby.
FileUtils Namespace for several file utility methods for copying, moving, removing, etc.
Module Functions require 'fileutils' FileUtils.cd(dir, options) FileUtils.cd(dir, options) {|dir| block } FileUtils.pwd() FileUtils.mkdir(dir, options) FileUtils.mkdir(list, options) FileUtils.mkdir_p(dir, options) FileUtils.mkdir_p(list, options) FileUtils.rmdir(dir, options) FileUtils.rmdir(list, options) FileUtils.ln(target, link, options) FileUtils.ln(targets, dir, options) FileUtils.ln_s(target, link, options) FileUtils.ln_s(targets, dir, options) FileUtils.ln_sf(target, link, options) FileUtils.cp(src, dest, options) FileUtils.cp(list, dir, options) FileUtils.cp_r(src, dest, options) FileUtils.cp_r(list, dir, options) FileUtils.mv(src, dest, options) FileUtils.mv(list, dir, options) FileUtils.rm(list, options) FileUtils.rm_r(list, options) FileUtils.rm_rf(list, options) FileUtils.install(src, dest, options) FileUtils.chmod(mode, list, options) FileUtils.chmod_R(mode, list, options) FileUtils.chown(user, group, list, options) FileUtils.chown_R(user, group, list, options) FileUtils.touch(list, options)
The options parameter is a hash of options, taken from the list :force, :noop, :preserve, and :verbose. :noop means that no changes are made. The other three are obvious. Each method documents the options that it honours.
All methods that have the concept of a “source” file or directory can take either one file or a list of files in that argument. See the method documentation for examples.
There are some ‘low level’ methods, which do not accept any option:
FileUtils.copy_entry(src, dest, preserve = false, dereference = false) FileUtils.copy_file(src, dest, preserve = false, dereference = true) FileUtils.copy_stream(srcstream, deststream) FileUtils.remove_entry(path, force = false) FileUtils.remove_entry_secure(path, force = false) FileUtils.remove_file(path, force = false) FileUtils.compare_file(path_a, path_b) FileUtils.compare_stream(stream_a, stream_b) FileUtils.uptodate?(file, cmp_list)
FileUtils::Verbose This module has all methods of FileUtils module, but it outputs messages before acting. This equates to passing the :verbose flag to methods in FileUtils.
FileUtils::NoWrite This module has all methods of FileUtils module, but never changes files/directories. This equates to passing the :noop flag to methods in FileUtils.
FileUtils::DryRun This module has all methods of FileUtils module, but never changes files/directories. This equates to passing the :noop and :verbose flags to methods in FileUtils.
The Forwardable module provides delegation of specified methods to a designated object, using the methods def_delegator and def_delegators.
For example, say you have a class RecordCollection which contains an array @records. You could provide the lookup method record_number(), which simply calls [] on the @records array, like this:
require 'forwardable' class RecordCollection attr_accessor :records extend Forwardable def_delegator :@records, :[], :record_number end
We can use the lookup method like so:
r = RecordCollection.new r.records = [4,5,6] r.record_number(0) # => 4
Further, if you wish to provide the methods size, <<, and map, all of which delegate to @records, this is how you can do it:
class RecordCollection # re-open RecordCollection class def_delegators :@records, :size, :<<, :map end r = RecordCollection.new r.records = [1,2,3] r.record_number(0) # => 1 r.size # => 3 r << 4 # => [1, 2, 3, 4] r.map { |x| x * 2 } # => [2, 4, 6, 8]
You can even extend regular objects with Forwardable.
my_hash = Hash.new my_hash.extend Forwardable # prepare object for delegation my_hash.def_delegator "STDOUT", "puts" # add delegation for STDOUT.puts() my_hash.puts "Howdy!"
We want to rely on what has come before obviously, but with delegation we can take just the methods we need and even rename them as appropriate. In many cases this is preferable to inheritance, which gives us the entire old interface, even if much of it isn’t needed.
class Queue extend Forwardable def initialize @q = [ ] # prepare delegate object end # setup preferred interface, enq() and deq()... def_delegator :@q, :push, :enq def_delegator :@q, :shift, :deq # support some general Array methods that fit Queues well def_delegators :@q, :clear, :first, :push, :shift, :size end q = Queue.new q.enq 1, 2, 3, 4, 5 q.push 6 q.shift # => 1 while q.size > 0 puts q.deq end q.enq "Ruby", "Perl", "Python" puts q.first q.clear puts q.first
This should output:
2 3 4 5 6 Ruby nil
Be advised, RDoc will not detect delegated methods.
forwardable.rb provides single-method delegation via the def_delegator and def_delegators methods. For full-class delegation via DelegateClass, see delegate.rb.
SingleForwardable can be used to setup delegation at the object level as well.
printer = String.new printer.extend SingleForwardable # prepare object for delegation printer.def_delegator "STDOUT", "puts" # add delegation for STDOUT.puts() printer.puts "Howdy!"
Also, SingleForwardable can be used to set up delegation for a Class or Module.
class Implementation def self.service puts "serviced!" end end module Facade extend SingleForwardable def_delegator :Implementation, :service end Facade.service #=> serviced!
If you want to use both Forwardable and SingleForwardable, you can use methods def_instance_delegator and def_single_delegator, etc.
In concurrent programming, a monitor is an object or module intended to be used safely by more than one thread. The defining characteristic of a monitor is that its methods are executed with mutual exclusion. That is, at each point in time, at most one thread may be executing any of its methods. This mutual exclusion greatly simplifies reasoning about the implementation of monitors compared to reasoning about parallel code that updates a data structure.
You can read more about the general principles on the Wikipedia page for Monitors
require 'monitor.rb' buf = [] buf.extend(MonitorMixin) empty_cond = buf.new_cond # consumer Thread.start do loop do buf.synchronize do empty_cond.wait_while { buf.empty? } print buf.shift end end end # producer while line = ARGF.gets buf.synchronize do buf.push(line) empty_cond.signal end end
The consumer thread waits for the producer thread to push a line to buf while buf.empty?. The producer thread (main thread) reads a line from ARGF and pushes it into buf then calls empty_cond.signal to notify the consumer thread of new data.
Class include require 'monitor' class SynchronizedArray < Array include MonitorMixin def initialize(*args) super(*args) end alias :old_shift :shift alias :old_unshift :unshift def shift(n=1) self.synchronize do self.old_shift(n) end end def unshift(item) self.synchronize do self.old_unshift(item) end end # other methods ... end
SynchronizedArray implements an Array with synchronized access to items. This Class is implemented as subclass of Array which includes the MonitorMixin module.
OpenURI is an easy-to-use wrapper for Net::HTTP, Net::HTTPS and Net::FTP.
It is possible to open an http, https or ftp URL as though it were a file:
open("http://www.ruby-lang.org/") {|f| f.each_line {|line| p line} }
The opened file has several getter methods for its meta-information, as follows, since it is extended by OpenURI::Meta.
open("http://www.ruby-lang.org/en") {|f| f.each_line {|line| p line} p f.base_uri # <URI::HTTP:0x40e6ef2 URL:http://www.ruby-lang.org/en/> p f.content_type # "text/html" p f.charset # "iso-8859-1" p f.content_encoding # [] p f.last_modified # Thu Dec 05 02:45:02 UTC 2002 }
Additional header fields can be specified by an optional hash argument.
open("http://www.ruby-lang.org/en/", "User-Agent" => "Ruby/#{RUBY_VERSION}", "From" => "foo@bar.invalid", "Referer" => "http://www.ruby-lang.org/") {|f| # ... }
The environment variables such as http_proxy, https_proxy and ftp_proxy are in effect by default. Here we disable proxy:
open("http://www.ruby-lang.org/en/", :proxy => nil) {|f| # ... }
See OpenURI::OpenRead.open and Kernel#open for more on available options.
URI objects can be opened in a similar way.
uri = URI.parse("http://www.ruby-lang.org/en/") uri.open {|f| # ... }
URI objects can be read directly. The returned string is also extended by OpenURI::Meta.
str = uri.read p str.base_uri
Tanaka Akira <akr@m17n.org>